ST 


THE  BLACK-BOARD. 


XERCISES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 


2«HE    BLACK-BOARD; 


FUBMISBIKO 


N   JsASY  AND  EXPEDITIOUS  METHOD 


GIVING  INSTRUCTION. 


DBSIGNED  FOB  THE  CSB  OF  COMMON  BCH00L8. 


BY  JOHN  GOLDSBURY, 

Author  of  "  The  Common  School  Grammar"  and  "  Sequel,"  —  Of  "  New  Tbeorlet  of 

Grammar,"  —  and  one  of  the  Anthora  of  "  The  American  Common-School 

Reader  and  Speaker,"  and  of  the  "Introduction"  to  tSie  lame. 


KEENE,    N.    H. 

PUBLISHED   BY   GEORGE   TILDEN. 

1847. 


LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

GEORGE   COBB 


/  -^ 


^1 


LJUE  BLACK-BOARD. 


EXERCISES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

ON 

THE    BLACK-BOARD; 

FDBKISHINa 

AN  EASY  AND  EXPEDITIOUS  METHOD 

OF 

GIVING  INSTRUCTCON. 

DESIGNED  FOB  THE  USE  0?  COMMON  SCHOOLS. 


BY  JOHN  GOLDSBURY, 

Author  of  "  The  Common  School  Gramiflto"  and  "  Sequel,"— of  "New  Theoriei  Of 

Gnunmar,"  —  and  one  of  the  Authors  of  "  The  American  Common-School 

Beader  and  Speaker,"  and  of  the  "  Introduction "  to  the  same. 


KEENE,    N.    H. 

PUBLISHED   BY    GEORGE   TILDEN. 

1847. 


l.H 


Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2007  witli  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcli  ive.org/details/blackboardOOgoldiala 


PREFACE. 


The  rarious  uses  of  the  black-board  are,  perhaps,  too  well  understood 
and  appreciated  in  this  Ticinity,  to  need  any  illustration  or  recommenda- 
tion whatever.  In  many  of  our  school-houses,  we  have  black-boards  of 
ample  dimensions,  and  generally  teachers  who  are  competent  to  explain 
then-  uses.  But  this  is  not  the  case  everywhere,  nor  generally  throughout 
New  England.  Even  in  Massachusetts,  there  are  many  school-houses 
destitute  of  this  necessary  appendage ;  and  there  are  others,  in  which, 
though  there  may  be  a  black-board,  yet  it  is  so  extremely  small,  as  to  be 
of  no  use ;  and  there  are  still  others,  in  which  there  is  a  black-board,  but 
no  teacher  competent  to  explain  its  uses. 

Some  think,  that  its  use  is  restricted  almost  entirely  to  mathematical  sub* 
jects.  But  this  is  a  great  mistake,  as  will  appear  from  a  perusal  of  the 
following  pages.  For  the  purposes  of  common  school  instruction,  the 
black-board  is  worth  more  than  all  the  diagrams  and  other  apparatus  that 
ever  were  invented ;  for  it  can  be  made  to  supply  the  place  of  these.  A 
piece  of  chalk  or  a  crayon,  in  the  magic  hand  of  a  skilfal  teacher,  can  in- 
stantly be  made  to  represent  any  diagram  which  is  needed  for  tlie  purposes 
of  illustration ;  and,  in  an  instant,  the  drawing  can  be  made  to  disappear, 
and  another  to  take  its  place.  And  these  illustrations  are  visible  to  all 
the  pupils  at  once.  As  illnsti'ative  of  this  point,  take  the  following  account, 
given  by  the  Hon.  Horace  Mann,  of  the  manner  in  which  geography  is 
taught  in  the  Prussian  schools :  — 

"  The  teacher,"  says  he, "  stood  by  the  black-board  with  the  chalk  in  his 
hand.  After  casting  his  eye  over  the  class,  to  see  that  all  were  ready,  he 
struck  at  the  middle  of  the  board.  With  a  rapidity  of  hand  which  my 
eye  could  hardly  follow,  ho  made  a  series  of  those  short,  divergent  lines, 
or  shadings,  employed  by  map-engravers  to  represent  a  chain  of  moun- 
tains. He  had  scarcely  turned  an  angle,  or  shot  oiF  a  spur,  when  the 
scholars  began  to  cry  out — Carpathian  mountains,  Hungary;  Black 
Forest  mountains,  Wirtemberg;  Giant's  mountains  (Riesen-Gebirge), 
Silesia;  Metallic  mountains  (Era-Gebirge) ;  Pine  mountains  ("Fichtel- 
Gebirge);  Central  mountains,  (Mittel-Gebirge),  Bohemia,  &c.,  &c." 
1* 


6  PREFACE. 

"  In  less  than  half  a  minute,  the  ridge  of  that  grand  central  elevation 
which  separates  the  waters  that  flow  north-west  into  the  German  Ocean 
from  tliose  that  flow  north  into  the  Baltic,  and  south-east  into  the  Black 
Sea,  was  presented  to  view,  —  executed  almost  as  beautifully  as  an  en- 
graving. A  dozen  crinkling  strokes,  made  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye, 
represented  the  head  waters  of  the  great  rivers  which  flow  in  different 
directions  from  that  mountainous  range ;  while  the  children,  almost  as 
eager  and  excited  as  though  they  had  actually  seen  the  torrents  dash- 
ing down  the  mountain  sides,  cried  out,  —  Danube,  Elbe,  Vistula, 
Oder,  &c.  The  next  moment  I  heard  a  succession  of  smalf  strokes  or 
taps  so  rapid  as  to  be  almost  indistinguishable :  and  hardly  had  my  eye 
time  to  discern  a  large  number  of  dots  made  along  the  margins  of  the 
rivers,  when  the  shout  of  Lintz,  Vienna,  Prague,  Dresden,  Berlin,  &c., 
struck  my  ear.  At  this  point  in  the  exercise,  the  spot  whicli  had  been 
occupied  on  the  black-board  was  nearly  a  circle,  of  which  tlie  starting 
point,  or  place  where  the  teacher  first  began,  M'as  the  centre ;  but  now  a 
few  additional  strokes  around  the  circumference  of  the  incipient  continent, 
extended  the  mountain  ranges  outward  towards  the  plains,  —  tlie  children 
responding  the  names  of  the  countries  in  which  they  respectively  lay. 
With  a  few  more  flourishes,  the  rivers  flowed  onwards  towaftls  their  sev- 
eral terminations ;  and,  by  another  succession  of  dots,  new  cities  sprang 
up  along  their  banks.  By  this  time,  the  children  had  become  as  much 
excited  as  though  they  had  been  present  at  a  Avorld-making.  They  rose 
in  their  seats,  they  flung  out  both  hands,  their  eyes  kindled,  and  their 
voices  became  almost  vociferous,  as  they  cried  out  the  names  of  the  dif- 
ferent places  which,  under  the  magic  of  the  teacher's  crayon,  i-ose  into 
view.  Within  ten  minutes  from  the  commencement  of  the  lesson,  there 
stood  upon  the  black-board  a  beautiful  map  of  Germany,  with  its  moun- 
tains, principal  rivers,  and  cities,  the  coast  of  the  German  Ocean,  of  the 
Baltic  and  the  Black  Seas ;  and  all  so  accurately  proportioned,  that  I 
think  only  slight  errors  would  have  been  found,  had  it  been  subjected  to 
the  test  of  a  scale  of  miles." 

The  black-board  may  be  used,  with  success,  in  illustrating  almost  any 
branch  of  science.  The  design  of  the  present  work  is  to  point  out  some 
of  its  uses,  and  to  aid  teachers  and  pupils  in  using  it.  The  method  of 
illustration,  here  adopted,  is  not  a  mere  theory,  which  never  had  an  exist- 
ence except  in  the  brain  of  its  author :  it  is  the  result  of  practical  experi- 
ence. It  is  substantially  the  method  which  the  author  has  used  for  a  long 
series  of  years ;  and,  he  believes,  it  is  substantially  the  method  pursued 
by  many  of  the  most  diutinguished  and  successful  teachers  of  the  day.  It 
is  true,  the  work  might  have  been  somewhat  varied.    The  author  might 


PREFACE.  7 

have  pursued  his  subjects  further,  and  been  more  pai-ticular  and  minute  in 
some  of  his  details ;  he  might,  with  equal  propriety,  have  taken  up  other 
subjects,  and  given  other  and  further  illustrations ;  but  this  would  have 
only  increased  the  size  and  expense  of  the  work,  without  adding  materially 
to  its  utility.  The  plan  and  execution  of  the  work  are  original,  though 
the  materials  have  been  gleaned  from  various  sources.  It  is  not  designed 
to  come  in  competition  with,  or  to  supersede,  any  other  work.  There  is 
no  work,  with  which  the  author  is  acquainted,  which  now  occupies  its 
place. 

For  the  want  of  such  a  work,  our  schools  have  long  suffered.  Scholars 
have  been  frequently  obliged  to  study  hour  after  hour  upon  their  lessons ; 
and,  after  all,  they  have  been  able  to  gain  only  a  very  imperfect  knowledge 
of  them ;  when,  by  the  use  of  the  black-board,  the  whole  subject  might 
have  been  explained  in  a  very  few  minutes.  The  ideas  which  scholars 
obtain  from  their  text-books  are  frequently  faint,  indistinct,  and  transitory. 
To  deepen  their  impressions,  and  to  render  them  more  vivid  and  abiding, 
they  want  to  see  the  subject  illustrated  on  the  black-board.  Visible  illus- 
trations will  do  more  than  page  upon  page  of  verbal  explanation,  because 
illustrations  are  better  understood  than  words. 

To  the  author,  it  has  long  been  a  matter  of  surprise,  that,  after  so  much 
has  been  said  upon  the  utility  of  the  black-board  in  school,  so  little  has 
been  done  to  aid  its  introduction  and  use.  Believing  that  such  a  book  is 
needed,  he  has  made  it  what  it  is ;  and  he  now  gives  it  to  the  public  with- 
out further  apology. 

JOHN  GOLDSBUBY. 

Boston,  January,  1847. 


DIRECTIONS. 


A  black-board  should  be,  at  least,  three  and  a  half  feet  wide,  and  ex- 
tend the  whole  length  or  breadth  of  the  room,  so  that  the  whole  class  can 
work  upon  it  at  the  same  time.  It  may  be  made  of  hard  finish  on  the 
walls  of  the  room,  and  then  painted  black  and  varnished  over ;  or  it  may 
be  made  of  boards,  and  affixed  to  the  walls  of  the  room,  or  suspended  on 
pulleys,  so  as  to  be  raised  or  let  down  at  pleasure.  And  it  should  be  placed 
at  such  a  height,  that  a  pupU  of  ordinary  size  can  reach  the  top  of  it 
without  difficulty. 

For  writing  on  the  board,  chalk  or  crayons  are  used ;  and  it  would  be 
well  to  have  brass  holders  for  these,  so  as  to  require  the  same  position  of 
the  fingers,  as  in  holding  a  pen.  The  holders  are  so  made  as  to  be  easily 
enlarged  or  contracted  at  pleasure,  and  thus  fitted  to  the  chalk.  The 
chalk  and  holdei-s  should  be  carefully  preserved  in  a  box.  There  should 
also  be  two  or  more  articles  for  clearing  the  board,  made  of  sheep-skin, 
tanned  with  the  wool  on,  and  so  made  as  to  be  conveniently  used  in 
rubbing  out  operations  on  the  board. 

Teachers  may  direct  their  pupils  to  commence  at  any  part  of  the  work 
which  they  choose.  When  they  take  up  a  particular  subject,  make  them 
understand  the  whole  ground  they  go  over ;  for  pupils  are  apt  to  be  in 
hurry,  and  are  inclined  to  pass  over  the  first  or  elementary  principles 
superficially.  The  boy  is  anxious  to  study  arithmetic,  before  he  under- 
stands tlie  meaning  of  the  words  in  which  the  sums  are  stated.  The  girl 
wishes  to  study  grammar,  before  she  can  read  a  sentence  correctly.  As, 
in  tlie  building  of  a  house,  the  foundation  should  be  first  laid  deep  and 
strong :  so,  in  the  education  of  children,  the  rudiments  should  be  first 
taught,  and  thoroughly  taught,  before  proceeding  to  higher  studies. 

If  more  examples  and  illustrations,  or  different  ones,  are  needed  under 
any  head,  it  will  be  easy  for  teachers  to  give  them ;  and  they  can  pursue 
the  subject  to  any  extent  they  please.  Some  parts  of  the  work  are  very 
brief  Those  subjects  have  been  dwelt  upon  the  most,  which  have  been 
the  most  neglected  in  common  schools.  This  is  the  reason  why  aritlimetic 
and  some  other  studies  have  not  received  more  attention  in  this  work. 


THE  BLACK-BOARD. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

Analtsis  is  the  dividing  of  a  compound  into  its  elements, 
or  constituent  parts. 

The  English  Alphabet  consists  of  twenty-six  letters  or 
elements,  —  a,  h,  c,  d,  e,f,  g,  k,  i,j,  k,  I,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  /,  m, 
V,  w,  X,  y,  z.     These  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

The  VOWELS  are  a,  e,  t,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y.* 
These  are  called  vowels,  because  they  have  a  free  and  uninter- 
rupted sound  of  their  own,  without  the  aid  of  a  consonant. 

The  CONSONANTS  are  b,  c,  d,f,  g,  h,j,  i,  I,  w,  n,p,  q,  r,  », 
t,  V,  X,  z,  and  sometimes  w  and  y.*  These  are  called  conso- 
nants, because  they  have  no  free  and  uninterrupted  sound  of 
their  own,  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 

Application. 

What  is  analysis  %  How  many  letters  are  there  in  the  English 
language  ?  How  are  they  divided  f  Which  are  the  vowels  ? 
Why  are  they  called  vowels  f  Which  are  the  consonants  f 
Why  are  they  called  consonants  ?  When  are  w  and  y  conso- 
nants ?  When  are  they  vowels  ?  Let  each  scholar  write  all 
the  vowels,  and  all  the  consonants,  separately,  on  the  black- 
hoard  or  slate.  After  this  is  done,  let  each  be  required  to 
pronounce,  in  a  clear,  distinct,  and  forcible  manner,  all  the 
vowels,  and  then  all  the  consonants,  and  to  observe  what  is 
peculiar  to  each  class  of  letters.  In  this  way,  scholars  will 
soon  learn  the  difference  between  vowels  and  consonants. 


*  W&nd  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  syllable  or  word,  and  wvoela 
when  they  end  one. 


10  THE   BLACK-BOABJD. 


VOWELS. 

The  different  sounds  of  the  vowels  depend,  not  only  on  the 
length  of  time  occupied  in  uttering  them,  but  also  on  the 
manner  of  opening  the  mouth,  and  exerting  the  organs  em- 
ployed in  giving  them  utterance.  Hence,  the  sounds  may  be 
long  or  short,  hroad,  open,  middle,  or  close.  In  uttering  the 
hroad  sounds,  the  mouth  is  opened  very  wide,  somewhat  less 
in  uttering  the  open,  stiU  less  in  uttering  the  middle,  and  nearly 
shut  in  uttering  the  close. 

TABLE    OF   VOWEL    SOUNDS. 
.  1234  58 

A  has  SIX  sounds,  as  in  ale,  all,  arm,  add,  (rare,  wad.) 

12  3  4 

E  has  four  sounds,  as  in  me,  met,  {there,  her.) 

/has  four  sounds,  as  va  pine,  pin,  (marine,  sir.) 

.  1       2         3       4  e        e 

O  has  six  sounds,  as  in  fio,  move,  nor,  not,  {wolf,  done.) 

1  2  3  4  6  6 

£7"  has  six  sounds,  as  in  tu?ie,  tub,  bull,  {rule,  bury,  Imsy?) 

12  3 

T,  when  a  vowel,  has  three  sounds,  as  in  {chyle,  hymn,  myrrh.) 
W,  when  a  vowel,  has  the  sound  of  long  u,  as  in  {new.) 

Application. 

On  what  do  the  different  sounds  of  the  vowels  depend  f 
How  is  a  broad  sound  produced  ?  —  an  open  sound  ?  — •  a  mid- 
dle sound  ?  —  a  close  sound  ?  Give  examples  of  each.  How 
many  sounds  has  a  ?  Give  examples  of  each,  and  write  them 
on  the  black-board  or  slate.  Now,  pronounce  them  distinctly 
and  forcibly,  and  notice  what  is  peculiar  to  each.  Pursue  the 
same  course  with  each  of  the  other  vowels,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y  and  w  ; 
and  take  particular  notice  of  the  examples  included  in  paren- 
thetical marks,  as  they  are  not  generally  regarded  as  distinct 
elements. 


ANALYSIS.  11 


DIPHTHONGS. 

A  dipJdhmig  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  uttered  by  a  simple 
impulse  of  the  voice,  as  ea  in  heat. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  uttered  in  like 
manner,  as  emi  in  beau. 

A  proper  diphthong  has  both  of  the  vowels  sounded.  There 
are  hut  four  proper  diphthongs,  oi,  oy,  ou,  and  ow,  as  in  voice, 
joy,  thou,  now. 

An  improper  diphthong  has  but  one  of  the  vowels  sounded. 
There  are  twenty-six  oi  ihB&Qy  aa,  ae,  ai,  au,  aw,  ay,  ea,  ee,  ei, 
eo,  eu,  ew,  ey,  ia,  ie,  io,  oa,  oe,  oo,  ou,  ow,  ua,  ue,  ui,  tio,  uy. 
There  are  seventeen  triphthongs,  awe,  aye,  eau,  eou,  ewe,  eye, 
ieu,  iew,  iou,  oeu,  owe,  uea,  uee,  uai,  uay,  uoi,  uoy. 

Application. 

What  is  a  diphthong  ?  What  is  a  triphthong  f  What  is 
&  proper  diphthong  ?  What  is  an  improper  diphthong?  How 
many  proper,  and  how  many  improper  diphthongs  ?  Let  each 
scholar  write,  on  the  black-board  or  slate,  as  many  words  as 
he  can  recollect,  containing  examples  of  each  kind,  and  point 
out  the  difference. 


VOWELS,   DIPHTHONGS,   AND    TRIPHTHONGS,    CLASSIFIED. 

There  are  seventeen  tonic*  elements,  which  may  be  classified 
in  the  following  manner : 

1.  A,  as  in  cde  ;  a«,  as  in  Gaelic ;  ai,  as  in  aim ;  au,  as  in 
gauge  ;  ay,  as  in  pay  ;  aye,  as  in  aye  ;  ea,  as  in  break ;  ei,  as 
in  vein  ;  ey,  as  in  they  ;  ua,  as  in  persuade. 

2 

2.  -4,  as  in  aU ;  awe,  as  in  awe ;  aw,  as  in  law ;  au,  as  in 
fraud;  eo,  as  in  George;  oa,  as  in  broad;  ou,  as  in  bought; 

8 

o,  as  in  nor. 

*  Producing  tone. 


12  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

.3 

3.  ^,  as  in  arm ;  an,  as  in  aunt ;  ea,  as  in  heart ;  ua,  as  in 
ffuard. 

4 

4.  A,  as  in  add;  ai,  as  in  plaid. 

5.  A,  as  in  rare  ;  aa,  as  in  Aaron  ;  ai,  as  in.  fair  ;  ay,  as  in 

.       ,     .  .  3  . 

flayer  ;  ea,  as  in  pear  ;  ei,  as  in  heir  ;  ey,  as  in  eyry  ;  e,  as  in 
there. 

6.  j&,  as  in  me  ;  ae,  as  in  aegis  ;  ay,  as  in  quxiy ;  ea,  as  in 
Jlea;  ee,  as  in  feel;  ei,  as  in  seize;  eo,  as  in  people  ;  e^,  as  in 

3 

key  ;  ie,  as  m  field;  oe,  as  in  oesophagus  ;  i,  as  in  marine. 

2  .  ... 

7.  ^,  as  in  m£t ;  a,  as  in  many ;  at,  as  in  said ;  ay,  as  in 

says  ;  ea,  as  in  death;  ei,  as  in  heifer  ;  ie,  as  in  friend;  eo,  as 

5  ,  3 

in  leopard;  oe,  as  in  oedipus ;  ue,  as  in  guess;  u,  as  in  htiry  ;  y, 
as  in  myrrh. 

8.  ^  as  in  pine ;  ai,  as  in  awfe;  ct,  as  in  height;  ey,  as  in 
eying  ;  eye,  as  in  eye  ;  ie,  as  in  die  ;  ui,  as  in  guile  ;  uy,  as  in 
buy  ;  ye,  as  in  dye  ;  ^,  as  in  e^y^. 

9.  I,  as  in  jam  ;  ai,  as  in  mountain  ;  e,  as  in  pretty  ;  ee,  as 
in  Jeen  ;  ei,  as  in  forfeit ;  eo,  as  in  pigeon  ;  ia,  as  in  marriage  ; 
ie,  as  in  «i«ve  /  o,  as  in  trom^re  ;  oi,  as  in  tortoise  ;  ui,  as  in 
^m« ;  u,  as  in  OM«y  ;  y,  as  in  hymn. 

10.  0,  as  in  7to;  au,  as  in  hautboy ;  eau,  as  in  beau;  eo,  as 
in  yeoman  ;  exo,  as  in  strew  ;  oa,  as  in  5c»a<;  oe,  as  inybe;  oo, 
as  in  door  ;  ou,  as  in  though  ;  ow,  as  in  snow  ;  owe,  as  in  owe. 

.2 

11.  0,  as  in  move  ;  ew,  as  in  screw  ;  oe,  as  in  «Aoe;  oew,  as 
in  manoeuvre ;  oo,  as  in  moon  ;  ou,  as  in  soup ;  ui,  as  in  bruit; 

4 

u,  as  in  rtde. 

4  6 

12.  0,  as  in  not ;  ou,  as  in  cough  ;  a,  as  in  wad. 


ANALYSIS.  1$ 

1 

13.  U,  as  in  tune  ;  eau,  as  in  beauty ;  eu,  as  inj'eud;  ew,  as 
in  new  ;  ewe,  as  in  ewe  ;  ieu,  as  in  adieu  ;  ieio,  as  in  view  ;  ue^ 
as  in  hue  ;  ui,  as  in  juice. 

2 

14.  C^  as  in  tub  ;  eo,  as  in  dungeon  ;  oe,  as  in  does  ;  io,  as 
in  region  ;  ia,  as  in  Britain  ;  oo,  as  in  blood ;  ou,  as  in  enough  ; 

4  4  6 

t/,  as  in  satyr  ;  c,  as  in  her ;  i,  as  in  sir  ;  o,  as  in  done. 

3  _  6 

15.  C^  as  in  hull ;  oo,  as  in  wool;  ou,  as  in  could;  o,  as  in 


wolf. 

,32  3  1 

16.  CH,  as  m  oil;  oy,  ss  in  toy  (y  like  e).         "k  Proper 

17.  Om,  as  in  bound;  ow,  as  in  town  (w  like  w).  ^  dipntnonga. 


Application. 

Let  the  pupils  write  on  the  black-board,  or  on  their  slates, 
all  the  words  representing  the  j^rs<  class  of  elements,  namely, 
ale,  Gaelic,  aim,  guage,  pay,  aye,  break,  vein,  they,  persuade. 
Let  each  pupil  then  be  required  to  pronounce  each  word 
distinctly  and  forcibly,  and  be  made  to  understand,  that  they 
all  belong  to  the  same  class,  and  contain  the  same  compound 
element,  the  name  sound  of  a,  that  is,  the  sound  of  a  and  e 
united. 

Then,  let  them  write,  as  above  directed,  all  the  words  rep- 
resenting the  second  class  of  elements,  namely,  aU,  awe,  laWy 
fraud,  George,  broad,  bought,  nor.  Let  each  pupil  then  be 
required  to  pronounce  each  word  distinctly  and  forcibly,  and 
be  made  to  understand,  that  they  all  belong  to  the  same  class, 
and  contain  the  same  simple  element;  which  element  they 
should  be  required  to  utter  distinctly,  apart  from  the  other 
letters  in  each  word. 

Pursue  the  same  course  with  the  other  classes  of  elements. 
The  words  containing  compound  elements  should  be  pro- 
nounced six  times,  loud,  louder,  loudest,  —  sojt,  softer,  softest. 
The  words  containing  simple  elements  should  be  pronounced 
three  times  only,  after  which  the  elements  should  be  distinctly 
and  forcibly  uttered,  apart  from  the  other  elements  in  each 
word. 


14  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


CONSONANTS. 


The  consonants  are  usually  divided  into  mutes  and  semi- 
vowels. The  mutes  are  h,  d,  p,  t,  k,  c  and  ff  hard.  They  are 
called  mutes,  because  they  obstruct  tjie  organs  of  speech,  and 
are  uttered  with  difficulty.  The  semi-vowels  are  J]  I,  m,  n,  r, 
s,  V,  z,  X,  c  and  </  soft.  They  are  called  semi-vowels,  because 
they  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  their  own,  without  the  aid 
of  a  vowel.  L,  m,  n,  and  r,  are  called  liquids,  because  tliey 
readily  unite  with  other  consonants,  and  flow,  as  it  were,  into 
their  sounds. 

Application. 

How  are  consonants  divided  ?  Wljich  are  the  mutes  f 
Why  are  they  called  mutes  ?  Which  are  the  semi-vowels? 
Why  are  they  called  sem.i-vowels  f  Which  are  the  liquids  f 
Why  are  they  called  liquids  ?  Let  the  pupils  write  on  the 
black-board,  or  on  their  slates,  all  the  mutes  in  regular  order ; 
and  then  let  them  write  words  in  which  all  the  mutes  are 
represented.  Let  them  pronounce  each  of  the  words  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  then  give  their  ele^nental  sounds.  —  Then, 
let  them  write,  in  like  manner,  all  the  semi-vowels,  and  also 
words  in  which  all  the  semi-vowels  are  represented.  Let  them 
pronounce  each  of  the  words  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  then 
give  their  elemental  sounds.  Let  the  scholars  notice  particu- 
larly what  organs  are  employed  in  giving  utterance  to  these 
different  elements,  —  the  teeth,  the  lips,  the  tongue,  the  palate, 
the  nose. 


TABLE  OF  CONSONANT  SOUNDS. 

B  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  babe,  barb,  babble.  It  is  some- 
times silent,  as  in  lamb. 

C  has  two  sounds.  Before  a,  o,  u,  r,  I,  t,  and  at  the  end 
of  syllables,  it  sounds  hard  like  k,  as  in  cart,  cottage,  cube,  craft, 
cloth,  fact,  Jlaccid.  Before  e,  i,  and  y,  it  sounds  soft  like  s,  as 
in  centre,  cinder,  mercy.  It  sometimes  has  the  sound  of  z,  as 
in  discern  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in  czar. 


ANALYSIS.  15 

D  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  did.  It  sometimes  takes  the 
sound  of  dj  andj,  as  in  soldier,  grandeur,  —  and  sometimes 
of  ^,  as  mjixed.     It  is  silent  before  g,  as  va  judgment. 

F  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  Jife  ;  except  in  o/^  in  which  it 
has  the  sound  of  v. 

G  has  two  sounds.  Before  a,  o,  u,  I,  r,  and  at  the  end  of  a 
word,  it  sounds  hard,  as  in  gave,  go,  gun,  glory,  grow,  brag. 
Before  e,  i,  and  y,  it  sometimes  h^  a  soft  sound,  lilie^,  as  in 
genius,  ginger,  gypsy,  —  and  sometimes  a  hard  sound,  as  in 
get,  gimlet.  Before  m  and  n  it  is  silent,  as  in  phlegm,  consign, 
gnomon. 

H  has  an  aspirate  sound,  as  in  he,  hall,  harm,  hat.  It  is 
sometimes  silent,  as  in  heir,  hour,  honest,  rhyme. 

J  has  the  sound  of  soft  ^r,  as  in  joy,  judge,  just ;  except  iu 
haMelujah,  in  which  it  sounds  like  y. 

K  has  invariably  a  hard  sound,  as  in  king,  keep,  hook,  hulk. 
It  is  silent  before  n,  as  in  knave. 

L  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  luU,  low,  law.  It  is  sometimes 
silent,  as  in  walk. 

M  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  maim,  man,  murmur  ;  except 
in  comptroller,  in  which  it  sounds  like  n.  Before  n,  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word,  it  is  silent,  as  in  mnemonic. 

N  has  two  sounds ;  the  one  pure,  as  in  no,  nine,  nay  ;  the 
other  a  ringing  sound,  as  in  hank,  think,  singing.  It  is  some- 
times silent,  as  in  hymn. 

P  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  pipe  ;  except  in  cupboard  and 
clapboard,  in  which  it  sounds  like  h.  It  is  sometimes  silent, 
as  in  empty. 

Q  has  the  sound  of  k,  an  J'is  always  followed  by  u,  as  in 
quMck. 

Ji  has  a  rough  sound,  as  in  rage,  run,  roar  ;  and  a  smooth 
sound,  as  in  her,  sir,  sister. 

S  has  a  soft,  buzzing  sound,  like  z,  as  in  rose,  odds,  dismal; 
a  sharp,  hissing  sound,  as  in  say,  so,  sister.  Sometimes  it  has 
the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  censure,  and  of  zh,  as  in  measure.  It  is 
sometimes  silent,  as  in  isle. 

T  has  one  sound,  as  in  tent,  tide,  time.  Sometimes  it  has 
the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  nation,  and  of  tsh,  as  in  nature.  It  is 
sometimes  silent,  as  in  listen. 

V  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  value,  vain,  view. 
W,  when  a  consonant,  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  way,  wise, 
world.    It  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in  write. 


16  THE   BLACK-BOABD. 

X  has  a  sharp  sound,  like  ks,  as  in  wax ;  a  flat  sound,  like 
gz,  as  in  exact ;  and  sometimes  the  sound  of  z,  as  in  Xenophon, 

T,  when  a  consonant,  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  you,  year^ 
yoke. 

Z  has  the  sound  of  flat  s,  as  va.  freeze,  zeal,  prize  ;  and  some- 
times of  zh,  as  in  glazier,  seizure. 

■• 
Application. 

How  many  sounds  has  M  Is  it  ever  silent  ?  Give  the  ex- 
amples, and  write  them  on  the  black-board.  Let  one  scholar 
pronounce  and  spell  the  first  example  in  the  ordinary  way, 
and  then  analyze  it,  by  giving  each  elemental  sound,  apart 
from  the  other  letters  or  elements  in  the  word.  Then  let 
another  scholar  pronounce,  spell,  and  analyze  the  second  ex- 
ample, in  the  same  way;  and  then  another  scholar,  the  third 
example ;  and  so  on,  till  they  are  all  finished.  Should  there 
not  be  a  sufiicient  number  of  examples,  under  each  head,  for 
the  purposes  of  drilling,  they  may  be  increased  to  any  extent, 
by  selecting  words,  at  random,  in  which  the  letter  occurs.  — 
Again,  how  many  sounds  has  c  ?  When  does  it  sound  like  k  ? 
When  like  s  f  Has  it  any  other  sound,  or  exception  ?  Give 
all  the  examples,  and  write  them  on  the  black-board.  Let 
each  scholar  take  his  turn  in  pronouncing,  spelling,  and  ana- 
lyzing them,  as  above  directed.  Pursue  the  same  course  with 
all  the  other  consonants,  —  d,f,  g,  h,j,  k,  I,  m,  n,p,  q,  r,  s,  t, 
V,  w,  X,  y,  z. 


DOUBLE    CONSONANTS. 

Ch  sounds  like  tsh,  as  in  church,  —  like  h,  as  in  chorus,  — • 
like  sh,  as  in  chaise. 

Sh  has  but  one  sound,  as  in  ship. 

Gh  sounds  like/,  as  in  laugh,  —  like  k,  as  in  hough,  —  like 
^,  as  in  ghost ;  —  and  it  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in  plough. 

Gn  serves  to  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  impugn. 

Ph  sounds  like  f,  as  in  phiz,  —  like  v,  as  in  Stephen ;  — 
and  it  is  sometimes  silent,  as  in  phthisic. 

Ng  has  a  nasal,  ringing  sound,  as  in  hanging. 

Sc,  before  a,  o,  u,  I,  and  r,  sounds  like  sk,  as  in  scan,  score. 


SYLLABLES    AND    WORDS.  17 

scud,  sclerotic,  scrag  ;  but  before  e,  i,  and  y,  it  sounds  like  s,  as 
in  scene,  science,  Scythian. 

Th  has  two  sounds ;  the  one  vocal,  as  in  this,  thee  ;  the  other 
aspirate,  as  in  thing,  thought.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of 
*,  as  in  'Thomas. 

Note.  AH  the  double  consonants  are  not  here  given.  The 
others  generally  sound  like  their  original  elements. 

A'pplicaiion. 

How  many  sounds  has  ch  ?  and  what  are  they  ?  "Write  the 
examples  on  the  black-board ;  and  then  analyze  them,  by 
speUing  them  first  as  they  are  written,  then  by  substituting  the 
clijiracters  which  represent  their  elementary  sounds ;  after 
which  let  their  elementary  sounds  be  given.  Pursue  a  similar 
course  with  sh,  gh,  ph,  ng,  sc,  and  th,  —  especially  with  those 
that  have  more  elementary  sounds  than  one. 


SYLLABLES   AND    WORDS. 

A  syllable  is  a  word  or  part  of  a  word,  which  is  pronounced 
by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice  ;  as,  a,  dis-4inct,  ar-tic-u-la-tion, 

A  word  is  a  syllable  or  a  combination  of  syllables,  used  as 
the  sign  of  an  idea ;  as,  play,  play  fid,  playfulness. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable ;  a  word 
of  two  syllables,  a  dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a  tri- 
syllable ;  and  a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  polysyllable. 

Every  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has  distinct  articu- 
lations. The  syllables  are  the  divisions  which  ai'e  made  in 
pronouncing  it  cori'ectly. 

Application. 

What  is  a  sylldbW^  Write  the  examples  on  the  black- 
.board,  and  then  pronounce  them  so  as  to  show  that  you  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  a  syllable.  —  What  is  a  word  2  Write 
the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  explain  the  difference 
between  a  word  and  a  syllable.  —  What  is  a  word  of  one  syl- 
lable called  ?  —  of  two  syllables  ?  —  of  three  syllables  ?  —  of 
four  or  more  syllables  ?  Write  examples  of  each  on  the  black- 
board. —  How  many  syllables  can  any  word  have  ? 
2* 


fS  TEE  BLACE-BOABD. 


GENEBAL   RULES   FOB   THE   DIVISION    OF   SYLLABLES. 

Rule  1.  A  single  consonant,  between  two  vowels,  must  be 
joined  to  the  last  syllable ;  as,  de-Zight,  bri-rfal,  re-source : 
except  in  words  compounded  of  inseparable  prepositions  ;  as, 
ujt>-on,  un-even,  di«-ease,  ex-ist. 

Rule  2.  Two  consonants,  proper  to  begin  a  word,  coming 
between  two  vowels,  must  not  be  separated  ;  as,  fa-5fe,  sti-^^e, 
in-stiL  But  if  they  are  not  proper  to  begin  a  word,  they  must 
be  separated ;  as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sed,  er-roT,  cof-fin. 

Rule  3.  Three  consonants,  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  if  they 
can  begin  a  word,  and  the  preceding  vowel  be  pronounced 
long,  must  not  be  separated ;  as  de-<Arone,  de-s#roy.  But  if 
the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable  be  short,  one  of  the  conso- 
nants usually  belongs  to  that  syllable  ;  as,  di«-^ract,  dis-jorove, 
dis-^rain. 

Rule  4.  Three  or  four  consonants,  not  proper  to  begin  a 
syllable,  coming  between  two  vowels,  —  such  of  them  as  can 
begin  a  syllable,  belong  to  the  latter  syllable,  the  rest  to  the 
former ;  as,  ai-s<ain,  com-^fete,  Qm-bro\\  da.n-dle,  dap-pley 
con-strain. 

Rule  5.  Two  vowels,  not  being  a  diphthong,  must  be  sepa- 
rated into  two  syllables  ;  as,  cru-el,  ru-in. 

Rule  6.  Compound  words  m'ust  be  separated  into  simple 
words  ;  as,  ice-house,  glotc-worm,  never-the-less. 

Rule  7.  Grammatical  and  other  terminations  are  generally 
separated ;  as,  lov-est,  lov-eth,  lov-ing,  lov-ed,  lov-er,  love-sicky 
love-tale,  love-token,  Sec. 

Application. 

What  is  the  first  rule  for  the  division  of  syllables  ?  What 
exception  to  it  ?  Write  all  the  examples  and  exceptions  on 
the  black-board,  and  explain  the  rule.  —  What  is  the  second 
rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  explain 
the  rule.  —  What  is  the  third  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples 
on  the  black-board,  and  explain  the  rule.  —  What  is  the  fourth 
rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  explain 
the  rule.  —  What  is  \he  fifth  TvX&'i  Write  all  the  examples 
oi*  tiie  black-board,  and  explain  the  rule.  —  Wliat  is  the  sixth 


RULES    FOR   SPELLING.  19^ 

rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  explain 
the  rule.  —  What  is  the  seventh  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples 
on  the  black-board,  and  explain  the  rule. 


GENERAL  RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

Rule  1.   Monosyllables,  ending  with/,  I,  or  s,  preceded  by . 
a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant ;  as,  vaill,  xaxxff,  pa$5, 
sta^,  &c.     The  only  exceptions  are  as,  gas,  has,  his,  if,  is,  of, 
this,  thus,  us,  was,  yes. 

Rule  2.  Monosyllables,  ending  with  any  consonant  hutf,  ^ 
or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  do  not  double  the  final  con- 
sonant ;  as,  do^,  mac?,  ma«,  tub,  &c.  The  only  exceptions  are 
add,  hunn,  hatt,  buzz,  ebb,  egg,  inn,  odd,  purr. 

Rule  3.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable,  ending  with  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel,  double  that  consonant  when  another  syllable  is  added 
beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  fog,  foggy  ;  thin,  thinwish  ;  wit, 
witty ;  begin,  beginner,  &c.  But,  if  a  diphthong  precedes,  or 
the  accent  is  on  the  preceding  syllable,  the  consonant  remains 
single  ;  as,  toil,  toiflng  ;  mai^,  mairfen  ;  offer,  offering ;  visi^, 
visited,  &c.. 

Rule  4.  Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  /,  and 
taking  ness,  less,  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter 
double  ;  as,  sti^ness,  sta^ess,  carelessly,  distressful,  &c.  But 
those  words  which  end  with  double  I,  and  take  ness,  less,  ly,  or 
fid,  after  them,  generally  omit  one  I;  as,  fulness,  skifless,  fully , 
skilful,  &c. 

Rule  5.  Niess,  less,  ly,  B.ndful,  added  to  words  ending  with 
silent  e,  do  not  cut  it  off;  as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely, 
peaceful :  except  in  a  few  words  ;  as,  duly,  truly,  awful,  wholly, 
idly. 

Rule  6.  Ment,  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  e,  gener- 
ally preserves  the  e  from  elision ;  as,  abatement,  chastisement, 
incitement,  &c.  Abridgment,  argument,  judgment,  lodgment, 
acknowledgment,  are  exceptions  to  the  rule.  Like  other  ter- 
minations, m,ent  changes  y  into  i,  when  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant ;  as,  accompany,  accompaatinent ;  merry,  merrtment. 


W.  XHE    BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule  7.  Able  and  ible,  when  united  with  words  ending 
•with  silent  e,  ahnost  always  cut  it  off;  as  blame,  hlamable ; 
cure,  curable  ;  sense,  sensible,  &c.  But,  if  c  or  ^  soft  comes 
before  e  in  the  original  word,  the  e  is  then  preserved  in  words 
compounded  with  able  ;  as,  change,  changeable  ;  peace,  peace- 
able, &c. 

Rule  8.  When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with, 
silent  €,  the  e  is  usually  omitted ;  as,  place,  placing  ;  lodge, 
lodging  ;  slave,  slavish  ;  prude,  prudish.  Words  ending  with 
ie  or  ye  change  ie  and  ye  into  y  before  ing  ;  as,  die,  dyiag ;  vie, 
vying  ;  lie,  lying ;  eye,  ey'mg. 

Rule  9.  Compound  words  are  generally  spelled  like  the 
simple  words  of  which  they  are  composed ;  as,  foot-ball,  wind- 
mill, bull-dog,  there-by,  here-after,  &c.  Many  words,  ending 
with  double  I,  are  exceptions  to  this  rule  ;  as,  al-ready,  wel-fare, 
wil-ful,  ful-jil,  &c. 

Rule  10.  Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
form  the  plural  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns, 
past  participles,  comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  changing 
y  into  i  /  as,  spy,  sp^es  ;  carry,  carr^est,  cameth  or  carn'es  ; 
carrier,  carried ;  happy,  happier,  happiest.  —  The  present 
participle  in  ing  retains  the  y,  that  i  may  not  be  doubled  ;  as, 
carry,  carrying ;  buy,  buying,  &c.  —  But  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
is  not  changed  ;  as,  boy,  boys  ;  cloy,  cloyed,  &c. ;  except  in  lay, 
pay,  and  say. 

HuLE  11.  Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant, 
upon  assuming  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant, commonly  change  y  into  i  ;  as,  happy,  happily,  happiness. 
But,  when  y  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  very  rarely  changed ; 
as,  coy,  coyly  ;  boy,  boyish,  boyhood  ;  joy,  joyless,  joyful. 

I^ote.  —  The  foregoing  "^ules  are  taken  chiefly  from  Mr. 
Murray's  Grammar.  The  orthography  of  a  great  number 
of  English  words  is  far  from  being  uniform,  even  among 
good  writers. 

Application. 

What  is  the  first  rule  for  spelling  ?  Write  on  the  black- 
board all  the  examples  given,  and  as  many  others  as  you  can 
recollect,  to  show  that  you  understand  the  rule.  Then  write 
all  the  exceptions  by  themselves,  and  point  out  the  difference. 
—  What  is  the  second  rule  ?     Write  on  the  black-board  all 


RULES    OP   ACCENT.  21 

the  examples  given,  and  as  many  others  as  you  can  recollect, 
to  show  that  you  understand  the  rule.  Then  write  all  the 
exceptions  by  themselves,  and  point  out  the  difference. — 
"What  is  the  third  rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the 
examples  given,  and  as  many  others  as  you  can  call  to  mind, 
to  show  your  knowledge  of  the  rule.  Then  write  all  the 
given  exceptions,  and  as  many  others  as  you  can  think  of,  by 
themselves,  and  point  out  the  difference.  —  What  is  \he  fourth 
rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the  examples  given,  and  as 
many  others  as  you  can  recollect,  and  point  out  the  difference. 
—  What  is  the  Jifth  rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the 
examples  and  exceptions,  and  explain  them.  —  What  is  the 
sixth  rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the  examples  and 
exceptions,  and  explain  them.  —  What  is  the  seventh  rule  ? 
Write  on  the  black-board  all  the  examples  and  exceptions, 
and  explain  them.  —  What  is  the  eighth  rule  ?  Write  on 
the  black-board  all  the  examples  and  exceptions,  and  explain 
them.  —  What  is  the  ninth  rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board 
all  the  examples  and  exceptions,  and  explain  them.  —  What 
is  the  tenth  rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the  examples 
and  exceptions,  and  explain  them.  —  What  is  the  eleventh 
rule  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  all  the  examples,  and  explain 
them. 


fiULES    OF   ACCENT. 

Accent  is  regulated,  in  a  great  measure,  by  etymology.  In 
words  of  Saxon  origin,  the  accent  is  generally  on  the  root  or 
principal  part  of  the  word.  In  words  derived  from  the 
learned  langiuiges,  it  is  generally  on  the  termination,  that  is, 
on  the  penult  or  antepenult.  In  some  words,  used  either  as 
nouns  or  t^erhs,  we  lay  the  accent  on  different  syllables  to 
distinguish  the  words  apart.  Thus  we  have  the  radical,  the 
terminational,  and  the  distinctive  accent,  —  the  radical,  as 
love,  lovely,  loveliness  ;  —  the  terminational,  as  harmony,  har- 
monious ; — the  distinctive^  as  convert,  to  convert. 


22  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


DISSYLLABLES. 


Rule  1.  Dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a  termination, 
generally  have  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable ;  as,  childish,* 
kingdom,  detest,  acted,  toilsome,  lover,  fairer,  foremost,  zeal- 
ous, fulness,  meekly,  c/rtist. 

Rule  2.  Dissyllables,  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to 
the  radical  word,  generally  have  the  accent  on  the  last  sylla- 
ble ;  as,  beseem,  bestow,  return. 

Rule  3.  In  dissyllable  words,  which  may  be  either  nouns 
or  verbs,  the  nouns  generally  have  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable,  and  the  verbs  on  the  last ;  as,  contract,  to  contract ; 
export,  to  export ;  rebel,  to  rebel. 

Note. — This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Verbs  generally 
follow  the  rule,  but  nouns  often  vary  from  it. 

Rule  4.  All  dissyllables  ending  in  y,  or,  ow,  le,  ish,  icj 
ter,  age,  en,  et,  er,  have  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable ;  as, 
cranny,  labor,  willow,  battle,  banish,  cambric,  batter,  courage, 
fasten,  quiet,  canker. 

Note. — The  exceptions,  allow,  avow,  endow,  below,  bestow, 
virtually  belong  to  Rule  2. 

Rule  5.  Dissyllable  verbs,  terminating  in  a  consonant 
and  e  final,  as,  comprise,  escape  ;  or  having  a  diphthong  in  the 
last  syllable,  as,  appease,  reveal ;  or  ending  in  two  consonants, 
as,  attend ;  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable. 

Rule  6.  Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a  diphthong  in  the  last 
syllable,  generally  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable  ;  as, 
applause;  except  some  words  in  ain ;  as,  certain,  curtain, 
mountain. 

Rule  7.  Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are 
separated  in  the  pronunciation,  have  the  accent  on  the  first 
syllable ;  as,  l-ion,  riot,  quiet,  liar,  ruin  ;  except  create. 

Application. 

By  what  is  accent  regulated  ?  How  are  words  of  Saxon 
origin  accented  ?     How  are  words  derived  from  the  Latin 


*  The  mark  of  accent,  in  the  following  examples,  is,  in  all  cases,  placed 
on  the  vovod,  instead  of  the  amsonant,  to  which  it  frequently  belongs. 


TRISYLLABLES.  23 

and  Greek  accented  ?  What  is  distinctive  accent  ?  Give 
examples  of  the  radical,  temiinational,  and  distinctive  accent, 
and  write  them  on  the  black-boai'd. — What  is  the  first  rule  ? 
Write  all  the  examples,  under  the  rule,  on  the  black-board  or 
slate  ;  then  point  out  all  their  affixes,  and  put  all  the  marks 
of  accent  in  their  proper  places. — What  is  the  second  rule  ? 
Write  all  the  examples  on  the  black-board  ;  then  point  out  all 
iheiT  prefixes,  and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their  proper 
places. — What  is  the  third  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on 
the  black-board ;  then  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their 
proper  places,  and  explain  the  difference  ;  also,  state  and  ex- 
plain the  note  under  the  rule. — What  is  the  fourth  rule? 
Write  all  the  example?,^  on  the  black-board ;  then  put  all  the 
marks  of  accent  in  their  proper  places,  and  state  and  explain 
the  note  under  the  rule. — What  is  the  fifth  rule?  Write  all 
the  examples  on  the  black-board ;  then  put  all  the  marks  of 
accent  in  their  proper  places,  and  explain  the  difference. — ■ 
What  is  the  sixth  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on  the  black- 
board ;  then  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their  proper  places, 
and  explain  the  difference. — What  is  the  seventh  rule  ?  Write 
all  the  examples  on  the  black-board ;  then  put  all  the  marks 
of  accent  in  their  proper  places,  and  give  the  exception. 


TRISTIXABLES. 

Rule  1.  Trisyllables,  formed  by  adding  a  termination,  or 
prefixing  a  syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word ; 
as,  loveliness,  tenderness,  contemner,  physical,  bespatter,  com- 
menting, commending,  assurance. 

Rule  2.  Trisyllables  ending  in  ous,  al,  ion ;  in  ce,  ent, 
aiit,  ate  ;  in  y  ;  iu  re,  le  ;  and  in  ude  ;  generally  have  the  ac- 
cent on  the  first  syllable ;  as,  arduous,  capital,  mention  ;  coun- 
tenance, armament,  elegant,  propagate  ;  liberty  ;  eligible,  thea- 
tre ;  plenitude. 

Note. — Some  words,  derived  from  other  words,  retain  the 
radical  accent;  as,  connivance,  acquaintance.  And  some 
words,  whose  middle  syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  conso- 
nants, as,  promulgate,  disciple,  —  and  others,  having  an  in- 
separable preposition,  as,  example,  indenture,  —  generally 
have  the  accent  on  the  middle  syllable. 


J4  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule  3.  Trisyllables  ending  in  aior  have  the  accent  ou 
the  middle  syllable  ;  as,  spectator,  creator,  relator,  &c.,  except 
orator,  senator,  barrator,  legislator. 

Rule  4.  Trisyllables  which  have  a  diphthong  in  the  mid- 
dle syllable,  as  endeavor,  or  a  vowel  before  two  consonants, 
as  domestic,  have  the  accent  on  the  middle  syllable. 

Rule  5.  Trisyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last 
syllable  are  of  French  origin  ;  as,  acquiesce,  repartee,  maga- 
zine :  or  they  are  words  formed  by  prejixing  one  syllable  or 
more  to  a  short  syllable  ;  as,  immature,  overcharge. 

Application. 

"What  is  XhQ  first  rule  for  accenting  words  of  three  syllables  ? 
"Write  all  the  examples,  under  this  rule,  on  the  black-board. 
First,  point  out  the  radical  part  of  all  the  words,  with  their 
terminations  and  prefixes.  Then  put  all  the  marks  of  accent 
in  their  proper  places,  and  explain  why  the  radical  words  are 
differently  accented. — What  is  the  second  rule  ?  "Write  all 
the  examples  on  the  black-board ;  then  put  all  the  marks  of 
accent  in  their  proper  places,  and  explain  the  note  under  the 
rule. — "What  is  the  third  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  and 
exceptions  on  the  black-board,  and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent 
in  their  proper  places. — What  is  the.  fourth  rule?  Write  all 
the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  put  all  the  marks  of  ac- 
cent in  their  proper  places. — What  is  the  fifth  rule  ?  Write 
all  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  put  all  the  marks  of 
accent  in  their  proper  places. 


P0LTSTLLABLE8. 

Rule  1.  Polysyllables  generally  follow  the  accent  of 
the  words  from  which  they  are  derived  ;  as,  arrogating,  con- 
tinency,  incontinently,  commendable,  communicableness. 

Rule  2.  Polysyllables  ending  in  ator  generally  have  the 
accent  on  the  penult,  or  last  syllable  but  one ;  as,  emendd- 
tor,  gladiator,  equivoedtor,  prevaricator. 

Rule  3.  Polysyllables  ending  in  le  generally  have  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable ;  as,  amiable,  despicable :  except 


DERIVATION    OF   WORDS.  25 

when  the  second  syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants ; 
as,  combustible,  condemnable. 

Rule  4.  Polysyllables  ending  in  ion,  ous,  and  ty,  have 
the  accent  on  the  antepenult,  or  last  syllable  but  two ;  as, 
salvation,  victorious,  activity. 

Note. — This  rule  applies  to  words  ending  in  lo,  io,  and  ccH; 
as,  cyclopaedia, punctilio,  despotical. 

Application. 

What  is  the  first  rule  for  accenting  words  of  many  sylla- 
bles ?  Write  all  the  examples  (under  the  rule)  on  the  black- 
board, and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their  proper  places. 
— What  is  the  second  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  on  the 
black-board,  and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their  proper 
places. — What  is  the  third  rule  ?  Write  all  the  examples  and 
exceptions  on  the  black-board,  and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent 
in  their  proper  places. — What  is  ihe  fourth  rule  ?  Write  all 
the  examples,  including  those  in  the  note,  on  the  black-board, 
and  put  all  the  marks  of  accent  in  their  proper  places. 

Note. — The  foregoing  rules  are  not  infallibly  correct.  They 
contain  the  substance  of  JVIr.  Murraj^s  rules,  which  are  per- 
haps as  complete  as  any  that  have  ever  been  given  to  the 
public.  Much,  however,  must  be  learned  by  example  and 
authority. 


DERIVATION   OF   WORDS. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative,  simple  or  com- 
pound.  A  primitive  word  is  not  derived  from  any  other 
word  in  the  language,  but  is  the  first  form  in  which  it  occurs ; 
as,  hard,  soft,  cold.  A  derivative  word  is  derived  from  another 
word  which  is  its  primitive ;  as,  hardwes«,  sohness,  coldwes*. 
A  simple  word  may  be  either  primitive  or  derivative  :  but  it 
is  particularly  opposed  to  a  compound  ;  as,  do,  primitive ;  did, 
derivative ;  both  of  which  are  simple  words.  A  compound 
word  is  formed  by  joining  two  or  more  simple  words  together; 
as,  sing-song,  book-binder. 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  ways,  but 
principally  in  the  three  following :  — 
3 


26  THE    BLACK-BOART>. 

1 .  Many  words  are  formed  by  uniting  together  other  words ; 
as,  pen-knife,  off'-spring,  high-way-man,  an-other,  my-selfy 
who-so-ever,  whe7-e-so-ever,  not-with-stand-ing,  straight-way, 
here-of,  there-to,  where-by,  hind-most,  hand-some,  for-get,  in- 
tend^ over-look,  up-held,  understand,  with-draw,  al-icays, 
al-most,  also,  &c. 

2.  Many  words  are  formed  by  prefixing  a  letter,  syllable, 
or  foreign  idiom  at  the  beginning ;  as,  atheist,  Z'^■ped,  compress, 
x^educt,  exact,  foresee,  geneaology,  hotnogeneous,  itiRx,  juris- 
diction, lithogra,Tphy,  misplace,  nonentity,  obtrude,  ^osiscript, 
repay,  «M&scribe,  ^rawsport,  undo,  &c.  Some  of  these  are  in- 
separable prepositions.  INIany  words,  in  our  language,  with 
which  prefixes  stand  connected,  are  never  used  apart  from 
them.  The  number  of  words  formed  by  prefixes,  amounts  to 
many  thousands. 

3.  Many  words  are  formed  by  affixing  new  terminations  to 
other  words,  or  by  changing  the  original  terminations ;  as, 
goodness,  hopeless,  joyful,  vigorows,  answerable,  compressjfiZe, 
generak'2;e,  instinctive,  blackish,  health//,  man(y,  shorten,  speak- 
er, priestess,  drunkard,  forfeiture,  grandeur,  foolery,  perplex- 
ity,  hillock,  lambkin,  dackling,  herblet,  animalcw^e,  contentment, 
kingdom,  bishopric,  -priesthood,  friendship,  hermitage,  physi- 
cian, «&c. 

Many  words  are,  also,  formed  by  adding,  dropping,  or 
substituting  some  letter  or  letters  in  otiier  words ;  as,  high, 
height ;  long,  length  ;  grass,  graze ;  foot,  feet ;  mouse,  mice, 
&c.  Besides,  many  words  are  derived  from  the  Saxon,  Greek, 
Latin,  French,  and  other  languages  ;  and  the  only  assistance 
which  the  English  scholar  can  obtain  o;i  this  subject,  is  from 
his  Dictionary,  and  his  teacher.  The  teacher  may  be  assisted 
in  the  discharge  of  his  duty,  by  consulting  "  Oswald's  Ety- 
mological Dictionary,"  "  Town's  Analysis  of  Derivative 
Words,"  "  McElligott's  Analytical  Manual,"  "  The  Scholar's 
Companion,"  and  Goldsbury's  "  Sequel,"  in  which  he  will  find 
most  of  the  prefixes  and  affixes  explained. 

Application. 

How  are  words  divided  ?  "What  is  a  primitive  word  ? 
Write  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  then  add  other 
examples,  to  show  that  you  understand  the  meaning  of  a 
primitive  word. — What  is  a  derivative  word  ?     Write  the  ex- 


ENGLISH    OB   SAXON  PEEFIXES.  2? 

amples  on  the  black-board,  and  then  add  other  examples,  to 
show  that  you  understand  the  meaning  of  a  derivative  word. — 
What  is  a  simple  word  ?  Write  the  examples  on  the  black- 
board, and  then  add  other  examples,  to  show  that  you  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  a  simple  word. — What  is  a  compound 
word  ?  Write  the  examples  on  the  black-board,  and  then  add 
other  examples,  to  show  that  you  understand  the  meaning  of 
a  compound  word. — In  how  many  ways  are  words  derived 
from  one  another?  What  is  ih^ first  way  of  forming  words? 
Write  on  the  black-board  as  many  examples  as  you  can  recol- 
lect, and  explain  their  formation  and  meaning. — Wliat  is  the 
second  way  of  forming  words  ?  Write  on  the  black-board  as 
many  examples  as  you  can  recollect,  and  explaiu  their  forma- 
tion and  meaning. — What  is  the  tfiird  way  of  forming  words  ? 
Write  on  the  black-board  as  many  examples  as  you  can  recol- 
lect, and  explain  their  formation  and  meaning. — Are  words 
ever  formed  in  any  other  way  ?  Write  the  examples  on  the 
black-board,  and  explain  the  difference. — From  what  sources 
are  words  principally  deiived  ?  and  what  assistance  can  the 
English  scholar  obtain  in  arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  them  ? 


ENGLISH   OH   SAXON   PREFIXES. 

1.  A  signifies  on,  in,  to,  or  at ;  as,  afoot,  on  foot ;  abed,  in 
bed  ;  afield,  to  the  field ;  afar,  at  a  great  distance. 

2.  Be  is  the  same  word  as  by,  and  signifies  near,  on,  at,  or 
to  make  ;  as,  Jecalm,  to  make  calm ;  iesiege,  at  the  seige. 

3.  En  or  em  signifies  in,  into,  on,  or,  to  make  ;  as,  enthrone, 
to  place  on  a  throne  ;  embellish,  to  make  beautiful. 

4.  FoBE  signifies  before  ;  as,  foresee,  to  see  before. 

5.  Ill  or  IN  signifies  to  make  ;  as,  imbitter,  to  make  bitter. 

6.  Mis  signifies  ill,  false,  or  torong  ;  as,  w/sconduct,  ill  con- 
duct ;  misapply,  to  apply  wrong. 

7.  Out  signifies  beyond ;  as,  ovtMve,  to  live  beyond. 

8.  Over  signifies  above  or  too  high ;  as,  ower^ow,"  to  flow 
above  ;  overcharge,  to  charge  too  high. 

9.  Un,  before  a  verb,  signifies  to  take  off ;  as,  Mwdress,  to 
take  off  clothes  ;  wncrown,  to  deprive  of  a  crown. 

10.  Un,  before  an  adjective,  signifies  not;  as,  Mwable,  not 
able ;  wngraceful,  not  graceful. 


2d  THE   BLACK-BOAED. 

11.  Under  signifies  beneath;  as,  WTzt/erbid,  to  bid  heneaih. 

12.  With  signifies /'rem  or  against ;  as,  with^'siw,  to  draw 
from  ;  «7^V/^stand,  to  stand  against. 


LATIN   PREFIXES. 

1.  A,  AB,  and  abs,  signify  _/*;'om  or  away;  as,  avert,  to 
turn  from  ;  aJject,  to  throw  away  ;  abstract,  to  draw  away. 

2.  Ad,  and  the  forms  it  assumes,  a,  ac,  ap,  ag,  al,  aw, 
AP,  AR,  AS,  AT,  signify  to  ;  as,  arfhere,  to  stick  to  ;  ascribe,  to 
give  to  ;  accede,  to  yield  to  ;  q/fix,  to  fix  to  ;  aggravate,  to 
make  heavy  to ;  alleviate,  to  make  light  to ;  annihilate,  to 
make  to  nothing ;  append,  to  hang  to  ;  a?-i*ogate,  to  assume  to  ; 
assimilate,  to  make  like  to  ;  attract,  to  draw  to. 

3.  Am  signifies  round  or  ahovA  ;  as,  ambition,  a  going  abouJt. 

4.  Ante  signifies  before  ;  as,  a?i^ecedent,  going  before. 

5.  CiRCUM  signifies  about  or  round;  as,  circumvQrxi,  to 
come  round  about. 

6.  Cis  signifies  on  this  side  ;  as,  c/^alpine,  on  this  side  of 
the  Alps. 

7.  Con  (cum),  and  co,  cog,  col,  com,  cor,  signify 
together  or  with  ;  as,  conjoin,  to  join  together ;  cooperate,  to 
work  together  ;  cogna,tQ,  born  together  ;  co/ lect,  to  gather  to- 
gether ;  compress,  to  press  together ;  corroborate,  to  make 
strong  together. 

8.  Contra  signifies  against;  as,  contradict,  to  speak 
against. 

9.  Counter  signifies  against ;  as,  counter&cty  to  act 
against. 

10.  De  signifies  down  or  from  ;  as,  e^eject,  to  cast  down. 

11.  Di,  Dis,  and  dif,  signify  asunder  or  away  ;  as  <:?ilacer- 
ate,  to  tear  asunder  ;  rf^smiss,  to  send  away ;  differ,  to  bear 
away. 

12.  E,  EF,  EX,  and  eg,  signify  out  or  out  of;  as,  eject,  to 
throw  out ;  e/Hux,  to  flow  out ;  ea;clude,  to  shut  out ;  ecstacy,  a 
standing  out  of  (one's  mind  for  joy). 

13.  Extra  signifies  beyond;  as,  extraordinary,  beyond 
ordinary. 

14.  In,  il,  im,  ir,  before  verbs^  signify  in  or  into.,  on  or 
upon  ;  as,  inject,  to  throw  into  ;  iVluminate,  to  make  light  in; 
impart,  to  carry  into  ;  «Vradiate,  to  shine  upon. 


LATIN    PREFIXES.  29 

15.  In,  ig,  IL,  IM,  IR,  before  adjectives,  signify  not ;  as,  in' 
finite,  not  finite ;  ignoble,  not  noble ;  i71egal,  not  legal ;  im- 
mortal, not  mortal  ;  zVrational,  not  rational. 

16.  Inter  signifies  between  or  among ;  as,  interpose,  to 
place  between. 

17.  Intro  signifies  within  ;  as,  introduce,  to  lead  within. 

18.  JuxTA  signifies  near  to;  as,yz<xtoposition,  a  position 
near  to. 

19.  Mal  and  male  signify  iU  or  bad ;  as,  maladministra- 
tion, bad  administration  ;  ma^econtent,  ill  content. 

20.  Ob,  oc,  of,  and  op,  signify  in  the  way,  against,  out ; 
as,  object,  to  cast  in  the  way ;  occur,  to  run  against  or  to 
happen ;  o/"fer,  to  bring  in  the  way  ;  oppose,  to  place  in  the 
way. 

21.  Per  signifies  through  or  by  ;  as,  j^er^ade,  to  go  through. 

22.  Post  signifies  a/iler  ;  as,  j90«<script,  written  after. 

23.  Pre  (prse)  signifies  before  ;  as,  prefix,  to  fix  before. 

24.  Preter  (prfeter)  signifies  beyond  or  past ;  as,preter- 
natural,  beyond  what  is  natural. 

25.  Pro  signifies /or, /orwart?,  or /or^A;  as,/>ronoun,y<w 
a  noun  ;  provoke,  to  caW  forth. 

26.  Re  signifies  back  or  again  ;  as,  recall,  to  call  ba^h. 

27.  Retro  signifies  backwards;  as,  retrograde,  going 
backwards. 

28.  Se  signifies  apart  or  aside  ;  as,  seduce,  to  draw  aside. 

29.  Sub,  sue,  suf,  sup,  sur,  and  sus,  signify  under  or 
after  ;  as,  SM^scribe,  to  write  tender  ;  succeed,  to  go  under  or 
after  ;  suffer,  to  bear  tinder  ;  suppose,  to  place  under  ;  sur- 
render, to  go  under  ;  swstain,  to  hold  under. 

30.  SuBTER  signifies  under  or  beneath ;  as  syS^erfuge,  a 
flying  under  or  beneath  (a  shift). 

31.  Super  signifies,  above,  over,  or  upon  ;  as,  superscribe, 
to  write  upon  ;  superadd,  to  add  over  or  above. 

32.  Sur  (Fr.  cont.  of  super)  signifies  above,  over,  upon  ; 
as,  SMrmount,  to  rise  above.;  swrvive,  to  live  after  or  above. 

33.  Trans  signifies  across,  over,  or  beyond ;  as  transport, 
to  carry  over  or  across  ;  transgress,  to  go  beyond. 

34.  Ultra  signifies  beyond;  as,  wfera-religious,  beyond 
what  is  religious. 

3* 


^  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 


GREEK  PREFIXES. 

1.  A  or  AN  signifies  want  of  or  without ;  as,  apathy,  ward 
of  feeling  ;  owarchy,  without  government. 

2.  Amphi  (ambi,  L.)  signifies  both  or  double  ;  as,  amphi- 
bious,  living  both  on  land  and  in  water. 

3.  Ana  signifies  back^  again,  or  separate  ;  as,  analyze,  to 
resolve  again  or  to  trace  baxik  ;  anatomy,  to  cut  apart  or  to 
separate. 

4.  Anti  or  ANT  signifies  against  or  opposed  to  ;  as,  aTUi- 
Christ,  against  Christ ;  anfarctic,  opposite  to  the  arctic. 

5.  Apo  or  APH  signifies  from  or  away;  as,  apogee,  from 
the  earth ;  aphelion,  away  from  the  sun. 

6.  Arch  signifies  chief;  as,  archbishop,  cAz'c/"  bishop. 

7.  Cat  A  or  cat  signifies  down ;  as,  catorrh,  a  flowing 
down  ;  catechize,  to  question  down  closely. 

8.  DiA  or  Di  signifies  through  or  asunder  ;  as,  <feameter, 
through  the  measure  ;  rfz'geresis,  a  taking  asunder. 

9.  En  or  em  signifies  in  or  ore  /  as,  emphasis,  stress  on  a 
word. 

10.  Epi  signifies  upon  ;  as,  epitaph,  upon  a  tomb. 

11.  Ge  signifies  the  earth  ;  as,  ^reology,  the  science  of  the 
earth. 

12.  Hemi,  DEMI,  and  semi,  signify  half;  as,  hemisphere, 
half  a  sphere  ;  rfewigod,  half  a  god  ;  semicircle,  half  a  circle. 

13.  Hyper  signifies  over  or  above  ;  as,  ^^(pcrcritical,  over 
critical. 

14.  Htpo  signifies  under  ;  as,  hypothesis,  a  placing  under. 

15.  Hydro  signifies  water;  as,  hydrometer,  a  water 
measure. 

16.  Meta  signifies  beyond  or  change;  as,  metaphor,  carry- 
ing beyond  the  ordinary  meaning,  or  changing  the  expression 
by  a  figure. 

17.  Para  or  par  signifies  through,  against,  or  similar; 
as,  joaragraph,  through  a  writing ;  parody,  similar  to  an  ode. 

18.  Peri  signifies  round,  about ;  as,  joerjphrasis,  talking 
round  a  subject,  or  circumlocution. 

19.  Syn,  syl,  sym,  and  SY,  signify  with  or  together ;  as, 
syntax,  a  placing  together  ;  syll&hle,  taking  together  with  the 
lips;  sympathy,  feeling  with  or  together;  system,  standing 
together^  as  a  whole. 


AFFIXES    OR    SUFFIXES.  31 


AFFIXES    OR    SUFFIXES. 

I.  Affiaces  used  in  forming  nouns  to  represent  the  doer  or 
performer, 

1.  An  or  IAN,  ANT,  AR,  ARD,  ART,  ATE,  signify  One  who, 
or  the  person  that ;  as,  Christian,  one  who  follows  Christ ; 
pagan,  one  who  worships  idols ;  assistant,  one  who  assists ; 
beggar,  one  who  begs ;  drunkarc?,  one  who  gets  drunk ;  mission- 
ary, one  who  is  sent  on  a  mission  ;  advocate,  one  who  pleads  a 
cause. 

2.  Ee,  eer,  ER,  ENT,  signify  one  who,  or  the  person  that ; 
as,  absentee,  one  who  is  absent ;  mountaineer,  one  who  dwells 
on  a  mountain ;  visiter-,  one  who  visits ;  patient,  one  who  suffers. 

3.  1st,  ite,  ive,  signify  one  who,  or  the  person  thai  ;  as, 
theons^,  one  who  theorizes ;  favon'^e,  one  who  is  favored ; 
captive,  one  who  is  taken  in  war. 

4.  Or  signifies  one  who,  or  the  person  that ;  as,  intercessor, 
one  who  intercedes  ;  governor,  one  who  governs. 

5.  Ster  signifies  one  who  ;  as,  songster,  owe  who  sings. 

n.   Affixes  used  in  forming  nouns  to  represent  being,  state 
of  being,  or  the  place  where. 

1.  Act,  age,  ance,  anct,  art,  signify  being  or  state  of 
being  ;  as,  accuracy,  being  accurate  ;  peerage,  the  state  of  being 
a  peer ;  vigilance,  state  of  being  vigilant ;  occupancy,  state  of 
being  occupied ;  library,  where  books  are  kept. 

2.  Ence,  enct,  escence,  signify  being,  state  of  being,  or 
becoming  ;  as,  abhorrence,  state  of  being  abhorrent ;  consist- 
ency, state  of  being  consistent ;  convalescence,  state  of  becoming 
better. 

3.  Ion  signifies  a^t  of  or  state  of  being,  and  is  equivalent 
to  the  participial  termination  ing,  implying  action  or  influence 
exerted ;  as,  contribution,  the  act  of  contributing ;  subordi- 
nation, the  state  of  being  subordinate. 

4.  Ment  and  mont  signify  being,  state  of  being,  act  of 
or  the  thing  that ;  as,  abasement,  being  abased ;  conceabnenf, 
ax;t  of  concealing  ;  refreshme7i<,  the  thing  that  refreshes  ;  acri- 
mony, state  of  being  sharp. 

5.  Ort  signifies  the  place  where  or  thing  that  ;  as,  depos- 
itory, the  place  where  things  are  deposited ;  memory,  the  thing 
or  power  that  calls  to  mind. 


32  THE   BLACK-BOAllD. 

6.  TuDE  or  UDE,  and  ty,  signify  being  or  state  of  being , 
as,  xi\\i\i\tude,  being  many  ;  solicitMrfe,  state  of  being  anxious  ; 
brevity,  being  short  or  concise. 

7.  Y  signifies  being,  state  of  being,  or  ^ing  ;'  as,  harmony, 
being  harmonious  ;  jealousy,  state  of  being  jealous. 

III.  Affixes  used  in  forming  nouns  to  represent  some  peculiar 
doctrine,  condition,  habit,  quality,  state,  office,  or  thing. 

1.  Cle  signifies  little  or  small;  as,  c&iaiicle,  a  little 
song. 

2.  DoM  signifies  dominion  ;  as,  Idngdom,  the  dominion  of 
a  king ;  freedom,  the  dominion  of  the  free. 

3.  Hood  signifies  state  of ;  as,  boyhood,  the  state  of  a  boy. 

4.  Ice,  ics,  ism,  signify  the  thing  done,  thing  that,  the  doc- 
trine, art,  or  science  of,  or  the  state  of  being  ;  as,  service*,  the 
thing  served  ;  ethics,  the  doctrine  of  morality ;  parallelism,  the 
state  of  being  parallel. 

5.  Ling  or  lin  signifies  little  or  young ;  as,  gosling,  a 
young  goose. 

6.  Ness  signifies  being  or  state  of  being,  or  qualify  of 
being ;  as,  barrenness,  a  being  barren ;  blessedness,  state  of 
being  blessed ;  softness,  the  quality  of  being  soft. 

7.  Ry  signifies  a  being,  the  art  of  the  place  where,  or  prop- 
erty of ;  as,  bravery,  a  being  brave  ;  casuistry,  the  art  or  science 
of  a  casuist ;  nursery,  the  place  where  young  children  or  trees 
ar  reared. 

8.  Ship  signifies  office  of,  or  state  of;  as,  rectorship,  office 
of  a  rector ;  copartnership,  state  of  having  equal  shares. 

9.  Ure  signifies  the  thing,  state,  power,  or  art  of;  as,  scrip- 
ture,  the  thing  written ;  legislatMre,  the  power  that  makes  laws ; 
agriculture,  the  art  of  cultivating  fields. 

IV.  Affixes  used  in  forming  adjectives  to  represent  the  quali- 

ties or  characteristics  of  persons  or  things. 

1.  Ac,  AL,  or  ICAL,  signify  of,  belonging  to,  or  relating  to  ; 
as,  demoniac,  belonging  to  the  devil ;  filia/,  belonging  to  a  son ; 
nantical,  relating  to  ships  or  sailors. 

2.  AcEOUS  signifies  of,  consisting  of,  or  resembling  ;  as, 
corinaceoMS,  consisting  of,  or  resembling  leather. 

3.  An,  ar,  ary,  signify  belonging,  relating,  or  pertaining 
to  ;  as,  human,  belonging  to  a  man ;  regular,  relating  to  rule  ; 
literary,  relating  to  letters. 


AFFIXES    OR   SUFFIXES. 


^3 


4.  Ant  and  ext  signify  being,  or  Hng ;^  as,  abundaw^, 
aboundm^f ;  coherc/i/,  stick^n^  together. 

5.  Ate  signifies  having  or  being  ;  as,  animof^,  having  life ; 
adequate,  being  equal  to. 

6.  Ble  signifies  may  or  can  be,  worthy  of,  Jit  to  be  ;  as, 
portaWe,  that  may  or  can  be  carried ;  lauda&/<?,  worthy  of 
praise  ;  eligible,  Jit  to  be  chosen. 

7.  En  signifies  made  of;  as,  wooden,  made  of  wood. 

8.  EsCENT  signifies  growing  or  becoming ;  as,  -^Mixescent^ 
growing  rotten. 

9.  FuL  signifies  ^mZZ  q/";  as,  hope/w/,  _/«/?  o/"  hope. 

10.  Ic,  ID,  INE,  signify  of,  belonging,  or  relating  to  ;  as, 
academic,  belonging  to  an  academy  ;  i\va:id,  of  or  belonging  to 
fear ;  man'ne,  of  or  belonging  to  the  sea. 

11.  Ile  and  ive  signify  may  or  can  be,  having  power,  tend- 
ing  ;  as,  flex?7e,  that  7nay  or  can  be  bent ;  persuasive,  having 
power  to  persuade. 

12.  IsH  signifies  like  or  resembling,  little  of  or  sotnewhat ; 
as,  childisA,  like  or  resembling  a  child ;  greenish,  little  of  or 
somewhat  green. 

13.  Less  signifies  withotU  or  wanting  ;  as,  ai'tZess,  without 
art ;  helpless,  wanting  help. 

14.  Like  or  ly  signifies  like  or  resembling  ;  as,  manZii^, 
/i^  a  man  ;  earth/y,  resembling  the  earth. 

15.  Ory  signifies  of,  belonging,  or  relating  to  ;  as,  prefa- 
tory,  belonging  to  a  preface  ;  piscatory,  relating  to  fish. 

16.  OsE  signifies /mZZ  of;  as,  verbose,  full  o/"  words. 

17.  Ous  signifies  yi/ZZ  of,  having,  belonging  or  given  to  ;  as, 
dangeroMs,^^/^  q/"  danger ;  billows,  consisting  q/'bile  ;  conten- 
tioMs,  given  to  contention. 

18.  Some  signifies  somewhat  or  full  of;  as,  gladsome,  some- 
what glad  ;  frolicsome,  full  q/"  frolics. 

19.  Ward  signifies  in  the  direction  of;  as,  homeward,  in 
the  direction  of  home. 

20.  T  signifiesy?^//  of,  covered  with,  or  made  of ;  as,  knotty, 
full  of  knots  ;  flowery,  covered  loith  flowers  ;  horny,  made  of 
horns. 

V.   Affixes  used  in  forming  verbs  to  represent  some  peculiar 
action  or  influence. 
1.   Ate  signifies  to  make,  to  give,  to  put,  or  to  take  ;  as, 
renovate,  to  make  new  again  ;  animate,  to  give  life  ;  invigorate, 
to  put  vigor  into  ;  exonerate,  to  take  the  burden  from. 


34 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


2.  En  signifies  to  make ;  as,  length«w,  to  make  long ;  glad- 
den, to  make  glad. 

3.  Fr  signifies  to  make  ;  as,  magni^,  to  make  great ;  puri/y, 
to  make  pure. 

4.  Isii  signifies  to  make ;  as,  Qnish^  to  make  an  end  ;  pub- 
lish,  to  make  public. 

6.  IzE  or  iSE  signifies  to  make  or  to  give  ;  as,  ci\i\ize,  to 
make  civil ;  authorize,  to  give  authority. 

Jfbte. — Let  the  preceding  Prefixes  and  Affixes  be  carefully 
studied  and  well  understood,  and  the  scholar  will  meet  with 
no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  etymology,  or  the  definition, 
of  words.  Some  of  the  Prefixes  and  Affixes,  in  certain  words, 
retain  very  little  of  their  original  meaning.  The  following 
examples  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the  plan  intended 
to  be  pursued  in  studying  etymology. 


Example  1. 

Scribe,  (from  scribo,  scriptum,  L.)  to  write;   a  toriter ; 
a  clerk  or  secretary ;  a  doctor  of  the  Jewish  law. 


Scribe 
Scrib  ed 
Scrib  ing 
Scrib  ble 
Scrib  bl  ed 
Scrib  bl  ing 
Scrib  bl  er 
Scrib  ble  ment 
Scrib  at  ious 
Scrib  bet 
Scrip 
Script 
Script  ory 
Script  ure 
Script  ur  ist 
Script  ur  al 
Script  ur  al  ist 
Script  ur  al  ness 
Script  ur  ian 
Scrip  page 
Scriv  en  er 


Ad  scribe  (or) 
A  scribe 
A  scrib  ed 
A  scrib  ing 
A  scrib  able 
A  script  ion 
A  script  it  ious 

Anti  script 
Anti  script  ur  al 
Anti  script  ur  ism 
Anti  script  ur  ist 

Circum  scribe 
Circum  scrib  ed 
Circum  scrib  ing 
Circum  scrib  er 
Circum  script  ive 
Circum  script  ive  ly 
Circum  script  ible 
In  circum  script  ible 


Un  circum  scrib  ed 

Con  script 
Con  script  ion 

De  scribe 
De  scrib  ed 
De  scrib  ing 
De  scrib  er 
De  scrib  able 
De  script  ion 
De  script  ive 
De  script  ive  ly 
De  script  ive  ness 
In  de  scrib  able 
In  de  script  ive 
Un  de  scrib  ed 

Ex  scribe 
Ex  scrib  ed 
Ex  scrib  ing 


ETYMOLOGy. 


35 


Ex  script 

In  scribe 
In  scrib  ed 
In  scrib  ing 
In  scrib  or 
In  scrib  able 
In  script  ive 
In  script  ion 
Un  in  scrib  ed 

Inter  scribe 
Inter  scrib  ed 
Inter  scrib  ing 

Manu  script 

IMis  a  scribe 
Mis  a  scrib  ed 
JNIis  a  scrib  ing 

Non  de  script 

Post  script 
Post  scri[)t  ed 

Pre  scribe 
Pre  scrib  ed 


Pre  scrib  ing 
Pre  scrib  er 
Pre  script 
Pre  script  ion 
Pre  script  um 
Pre  script  ive 
Pre  script  ible 
Pre  script  ibil  ity 
Im  pre  script  ible 
Im  pre  script  ibil  ity 
Ira  pre  script  ibly 
Un  pre  scrib  ed 

Pro  scribe 
Pro  scrib  ed 
Pro  scrib  ing 
Pro  scrib  er 
Pro  script 
Pro  script  ive 
Pro  script  ion 

Re  scribe 
Re  scrib  ed 
Re  scrib  ing 
Re  script 
Re  script  ion 
Re  scrij)t  ive  ly 


San  script 

Sub  sci'ibe 
Sub  scrib  ed 
Sub  scrib  ing 
Sub  scrib  er 
Sub  script 
Sub  script  ion 

Super  scribe 
Super  scrib  ed 
Super  scrib  ing 
Super  script 
Super  script  ion 

Tran  scribe 
Tran  scrib  ed 
Tran  scrib  ing 
Tran  scrib  er 
Tran  scrib  bier 
Tran  script 
Tran  script  ion 
Tran  script  ive 
Tran  script  ive  ly 

Un  script  ur  al 
Un  script  ur  al  ly 


Example  2. 

Press,  (from  2jre?/?o,  prcssum,  L.)  to  squeeze  or  force  with 
weight ;  an  irfStrunicnt  or  machine  by  which  any '  thing  is 
squeezed,  crushed,  or  forced  into  a  more  compact  form ;  a 
machine  for  printing ;   a  crowd ;   urgency. 


Press 
Press  ed 
Press  ing 
Press  ing  ly 
Press  er 
Press  ion 
Press  ure 


Press  ly 
Press  nes3 
Press  it  ant 
Press  bed 
Press  gang 
Press  man 
Press  monoy 


Press  work 

Com  press 
Com  press  ed 
Com  press  ing 
Com  press  ion 
Com  press  ure 


G)m  press  ive 
Com  press  ive  ly 
Com  press  ible 
Com  press  ible  ness 
Com  press  ibil  ity 
Incompressible 
In  com  press  ible  ness 
In  com  press  ibil  ity 
Un  com  press  ed 
Un  com  press  ible 

Counter  press  ure 

De  press 
De  press  ed 
De  press  ing 
De  press  or 
De  press  ion 
De  press  ive 
De  press  ible 
Un  de  press  ed 

Ex  press 
Ex  press  ed 
Ex  press  ing 
Ex  press  er 
Ex  press  ly 
Ex  press  ness 
Ex  press  ion 
Ex  press  ion  less 
Ex  press  ure 
Ex  press  ible 
Ex  press  ive 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

Ex  press  ive  ly 
Ex  press  ive  ness 
In  ex  press  ive 
In  ex  press  ible 
In  ex  press  ibil  ity 
In  ex  press  ibly 
Un  ex  press  ed 
Un  ex  press  ible 
Un  ex  press  ive 
Un  ex  press  ive  ly 

Im  press 
Im  press  ed 
Im  press  ing 
Im  press  ure 
Im  press  ment 
Im  press  ive 
Im  press  ive  ly 
Im  press  ive  ness 
Im  press  ible 
Im  press  ibil  ity 
Re  im  press 
Re  im  press  ed 
Re  im  press  ing 
Re  im  press  ion 
Un  im  press  ed 
Un  im  press  ible 
Un  im  press  ive 
Un  im  press  ive  ness 

Op  press 
Op  press  ed 
Op  press  ing 


Op  press  Oi 
Op  press  ion 
Op  press  ive 
Op  press  ive  ly 
Op  press  ive  ness 
Un  op  press  ed 
Un  op  press  ive 

Over  press 
Over  press  ed 
Over  press  ing 

Re  press 
Re  press  ed 
Re  press  ing 
Re  press  ion 
Re  press  er 
Re  press  ive 
Re  press  ive  ly 
Ir  re  press  ible 

Sup  press 
Sup  press  ed 
Sup  press  ing 
Sup  press  or 
Sup  press  ion 
Sup  press  ive 
In  sup  press  ive 
In  sup  press  ion 
In  sup  press  ible 
Un  sup  press  ed 

Un  press  ed 


Example  3. 

Tract,  (from  traho,  tractum,  L.)  to  trace  or  draw  oitt ; 
quantity  of  land ;  a  treatise  ;  a  small  book  or  pamphlet. 


Tract 
Tract  ed 
Tract  ing 
Tract  or 


Tract  ive 
Tract  ion 
Tract  ory 
Tract  rix 


Tract  ar  ian 
Tract  ate 
Tract  ator 
Tract  ation 


ETYMOLOGY. 


37 


Tract  ile 
Tract  il  ity 
Tract  able 
Tract  abil  ity 
Tract  ably 
Tract  able  ness 

Abs -tract 
Abs  tract  ed 
Abs  tract  ing 
Abs  tract  er 
Abs  tract  ion 
Abs  tract  ed  ly 
Abs  tract  ed  ness 
Abs  tract  ive 
Abs  tract  ive  ly 
Abs  tract  ly 
Abs  tract  ness 

At  tract 
At  tract  ed 
At  tract  ing 
At  tract  ing  ly 
At  tract  ion 
At  tract  ic 
At  tract  ic  al 
At  tract  ile 
At  tract  ive 
At  tract  ive  ly 
At  tract  ive  ness 
At  tract  or 
At  tract  able 
At  tract  abil  ity 
At  trah  ent 
Un  at  tract  ed 
Un  at  tract  ive 

Con  tract 
Con  tract  ed 
Con  tract  ing 
Con  tract  ive 
Con  tract  or 


Con  tract  ion 
Con  tract  ed  ly 
Con  tract  ed  ness 
Con  tract  ible 
Con  tract  ibil  ity 
Con  tract  ible  ness 
Con  tract  ile 
Con  tract  il  ity 
In  con  tract  ed 
Pre  con  tract 
Pre  con  tract  ed 
Pre  con  tract  ing 

De  tract 
De  tract  ed 
De  tract  ing 
De  tract  ing  ly 
De  tract  or 
De  tract  ion 
De  tract  ious 
De  tract  ive 
De  tract  er 
De  tract  ress 
De  tract  cry 

Dis  tract 
Dis  tract  ed 
Dis  tract  ing 
Dis  tract  er 
Dis  tract  ion 
Dis  tract  ive 
Dis  tract  ible 
Dis  tract  ile 
Dis  tract  ed  ly 
Dis  tract  ed  ness 
Un  dis  tract  ed 
Un  dis  tract  ed  ly 
Un  dis  tract  ed  ness 

Ex  tract 
Ex  tract  ed 
Ex  tract  ing 
4 


Ex  tract  ion 
Ex  tract  or 
Ex  tract  ive 
Ex  tract  ible 

In  tract  ile 
In  tract  able 
In  tract  ably 
In  tract  able  ness 
In  tract  abil  ity 

Pro  tract 
Pro  tract  ed 
Pro  tract  ing 
Pro  tract  er 
Pro  tract  ive 
Pro  tract  ion 
Pro  tract  or 
Un  pro  tract  ed 

Re  tract 
Re  tract  ed 
Re  tract  ing 
Re  tract  ion 
Re  tract  ible 
Re  tract  ile 
Re  tract  ive 
Re  tract  ate 
Re  tract  ation 
Re  trax  it 
Un  re  tract  ed 

Sub  tract 
Sub  tract  ed 
Sub  tract  ing 
Sub  tract  ion 
Sub  tract  er 
Sub  tract  ive 
Sub  trah  end 

Un  tract  able 
Un  tract  able  ness 


3S 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


Example  4. 


Equal,  (from  equus  or  cequus,  L.)  even,  just,  right ;  one 
of  the  same  rank,  age,  or  merit ;  to  make  equal. 


Equal 

Equal  ed 
Equal  ing 
Equal  ly 
Equal  ness 
Equal  ity 
Equal  ize 
Equal  iz  ed 
Equal  iz  ing 
Equal  iz  ation 
Equa  ble 
Equa  ble  ness 
Equa  bil  ity 
Equa  bly 
Equ  angular 
Equ  anim  ity 
Equ  anim  ous 
Equ  ant 
Equat  ion 
Equat  or 
Equat  or  ial 
Equat  or  ial  ly 
Equi  angl  ed 
Equi  angular 
Equi  crur  al 
Equi  crure 
Equi  differ  ent 
Equi  distant 
Equi  distance 
Equi  distant  ly 
Equi  form  ity 
Equi  later  al 
Equi  librate 
Equi  librat  ed 
Equi  librat  ing 
Equi  librat  ion 


Equi  libri  um 
Equi  libri  ous 
Equi  libri  ous  ly 
Equi  libr  ist 
Equi  libr  ity 
Equi  multi  pie 
Equi  necessar  y 
Equi  nox 
Equi  noct  ial 
Equi  noct  ial  ly 
Equi  numer  ant 
Equi  penden  cy 
Equi  poise 
Equi  pollence 
Equi  pollen  cy 
Equi  poUent 
Equi  poUent  ly 
Equi  ponderate 
Equi  ponderat  ed 
Equi  ponderat  ing 
Equi  ponder  ance 
Equi  ponder  ancy 
Equi  ponder  ous 
Equi  pondi  ous 
Equi  radic  al 
Equi  sonance 
Equit  y 
Equit  able 
Equit  ably 
Equit  able  ness 
Equit  ant 
Equit  ancy 
Equit  ation 
Equi  valence 
Equi  valency 
Equi  valent 


Equi  valent  \j 
Equi  valve 
Equi  vocal 
Equi  vocal  Jy 
Equi  vocal  ness 
Equi  vocate 
Equi  vocat  ed 
Equi  vocat  ing 
Equi  vocat  ion 
Equi  vocat  or 

Ad  equate 
Ad  equat  ing 
Ad  equate  ly 
Ad  equate  ness 
Ad  equat  ion 
Ad  equa  cy 
In  ad  equate 
In  ad  equate  ly 
In  ad  equate  ness 
In  ad  equat  ion 
In  ad  equa  cy 

In  equal 
In  equal  ity 
In  equa  ble 
In  equit  able 
In  equi  later  al 
In  equi  librio 
In  equi  valve 
In  iquit  y 
In  iquit  ous 
In  iqui  ous 

Un  equal 
Un  equal  ly 


Tin  equal  able 
Un  equa  ble 
Un  equal  ed 


ETYMOLOGY. 


39 


Un  equal  ness  Un  equi  vocal 

Un  equit  able  Un  equi  vocal  ly 

Un  equit  ably  Un  equi  vocal  ness 


Example  5. 


Type,  (from  typtis,  L.,  or  mzoc,  Gr.,  or  type,  Fr.)  a  figure^ 
an  emblem,  a  symbol,  or  a  sign  ;  a  printer's  Utter. 


Type 
Typic 
Typ  ic  al 
Typ  ic  al  ly 
Typ  ic  al  ness 
Typi  fy 
Typi  fi  ed 
Typi  fy  ing 
Typi  fi  er 
Typi  fie  ation 
Type  found  ing 
Type  metal 
Typo  cosmy 
Typo  graphy 
Typo  graph  er 
Typo  graph  ic 
Typo  graph  ic  al 


Typo  lite 
Typo  logy 

Anti  type 
Anti  typ  ic  al 
Anti  typ  ous 

Arche  type* 
Arche  typ  al 
Arche  typ  ic  al 

Chrono  type 

Ec  type 
Ec  typ  al 

Phono  type 


Phono  typ  ic 
Phono  typ  ic  al 
Phono  typy 

Pre  typi  fy 
Pre  typi  fi  ed 
Pre  typi  fy  ing 

Proto  type 

Stereo  type 
Stereo  typ  ed 
Stereo  typ  ing 
Stereo  typ  er 
Stereo  typ  ic 
Stereo  typo  graphy 
Stereo  typo  graph  er 


Example  6. 

Oethogkaphy,  (from  the  Gr.  opr&oq^  correct,  and  ypo^u,  to 
write,)  the  art  of  spelling  words,  or  word-making. 


Ortho 
Ortho 
Ortho 
Ortho 
Ortho 
Ortho 

Ortho 
Ortho 
Ortho 


graphy 
graph  er 
graph  ic 
graph  ic  al 
graph  ic  al 
graph  ist 

dox 

dox  al 
dnx  al  ly 


Ij 


Ortho  dox  ly 
Ortho  dox  ness 
Ortho  dox  y 
Un  ortho  dox 

Ortho  dromy 
Ortho  drom  ics 
Ortho  drom  ic 

Ortho  cpy 

*See  Glossary. 


Ortho  ep  ist 
Ortho  epie  al 

Ortho  gon 
Ortho  gon  al 

Ortho  logy 

Ortho  metry 


THE   BLACK-BOABB. 


Ortho  nyx 

Ortho  pedy 
Ortho  ped  ic 
Ortho  ped  ic  al 

Ortho  pnoea 

Ortho  ptera 
Ortho  pter  an 
Ortho  pter  ous 

Ortho  style 

'  Graph  ic 
Graph  ic  al 
Graph  ic  al  ly 
Graph  ite 
Graph  ometer 

Aero  graphy 

Adeno  graphy 

Anemo  graphy 

Angio  graphy 

Apo  graph 

Astro  graphy 

Auto  graphy 
Auto  graph 
Auto  graph  al 
Auto  graph  ic 
Auto  graph  ic  al 

Biblio  graphy 
Biblio  graph  er 
Biblio  graph  ic 
Biblio  graph  ic  al 


Biblio  graph  ic  al  ly  Cosmo  graph  er 
Cosmo  graph  ic  al 
Cosmo  graph  ic  al  ly 


Bio  graphy 
Bio  graph  er 
Bio  graph  ic 
Bio  graph  ic  al 
Bio  graph  ic  al  ly 
Auto  bio  graphy 

Brachy  graphy 
Brachy  gi-aph  er 

Caco  graphy 

Calli  graphy 
CaUi  graph  er 
Calli  graph  ic 
Calli  graph  ic  al 
Calli  graph  ist 

Chalco  graphy 
Chalco  graph  er 
Chalco  graph  ist 

Chiro  graphy 
Chiro  graph 
Chiro  graph  er 
Chiro  graph  ic 
Chiro  graph  ic  al 
Chiro  graph  ist 

Christiano  graphy 

Chromato  graphy 

Chrono  graphy 
Chrono  graph  er 

Cometo  graphy 
Cometo  graph  er 


Crypto  graphy 
Crypto  graph  al 

Crystallo  graphy 
Crystallo  graph  er 
Crystallo  graph  ic 
Crystallo  graph  ic  al 

Dia  graph 
Dia  graph  ics 
Dia  graph  ic  al 

Epi  graph 
Epi  graph  ics 

Ethno  graphy 
Ethno  graph  er 
Ethno  graph  ic 
Ethno  graph  ic  al 

Geo  graphy 
Geo  graph  er 
Geo  graph  ic 
Geo  graph  ic  al 
Geo  graph  ic  al  ly 

Glosso  graphy 
Glosso  graph  er 
Glosso  graph  ic  al 

Glypho  graphy 
Glypho  graph  er 
Glypho  graph 

Glypto  graphy 
Glypto  graph  ic 


Cosmo  graphy  Hagio  graphy 


ETYMOLOGY. 


41 


Haglo  graph  er 
Hagio  graph 
Hagio  graph  al 

Hiero  graphy 
Hiero  graph  er 
Hiero  graph  ic 
Hiero  graph  ic  al 

Historic  graphy 
Historic  graph  er 
Historic  graph  ic  al 

Horo  graphy 
Horo  logio  graphy 
Horo  logio  graph  er 
Horo  logio  graph  ic 

Hydro  graphy 
Hydro  graph  er 
Hydro  graph  ic 

Ichno  graphy 
Ichnc  graph  ic  al 

Icono  graphy 

Lexico  graphy 
Lexico  graph  er 
Lexico  graph  ic 
Lexico  graph  ic  al 

Litho  graph 
Litho  graph  ing 
Litho  graph  er 
Litho  graph  ic 
Litho  graph  ic  al 
Litho  graphy 

Metallo  graphy 

Micro  graphy 


Mimo  graphy 
Mimo  graph  er 

Mono  graphy 
Mono  graph 
Mono  graph  er 
Mono  graph  ic 
Mono  graph  ic  al 
Mono  graph  ist 

Myo  graphy 
Myo  graphic 
Myo  graph  ic  al 
Myo  graph  ist 

Ourano  graphy 
Ourano  graph  ist 

Para  graph 
Para  graph  ic 
Para  graph  ic  al 

Photo  graph 
Photo  graph  ic 
Photo  graph  y 

Phyto  graphy 

Poly  graphy 
Poly  graph 
Poly  graph  ic 
Poly  graph  ic  al 

Psalmo  graphy 
Psalmo  graph  er 
Psalmo  graph  ist 

Pseudo  graphy 
Pseudo  graph 

Scene  giaphy 
Scene  graph  ic 
4* 


Sceno  graph  ic  al 

Seleno  graphy 
Selene  graph  er 
Seleno  graph  ic 
Seleno  graph  ic  al 
Seleno  graph  ist 

Stegano  graphy 
Stegano  graph  ist 

Steno  graphy 
Steno  graph  er 
Steno  graph  ic 
Steno  graph  ic  al 
Steno  graph  ist 

Tele  graph 
Tele  graph  ic 
Tele  graph  ic  al 

Tope  graphy 
Tope  graph  er 
Tope  graph  ic 
Tope  graph  ic  al 
Topo  graph  ic  al  ly 
Tope  graph  ist 

Typo  graphy 
Typo  graph  er 
Typo  graph  ic 
Typo  graph  ic  al 
Typo  graph  ic  al  ly 

Xylo  graphy 
Xylo  graph  er 
Xylo  graph  ic 

Zoo  graphy 
Zoo  graph  er 
Zoo  graph  ic  al 
Zoo  graph  ist 


42 


THB  BLACK-BOARD. 


Example  7. 

Logic,  (from  Aoyor,  Gr.J  reason,  a  word,  a  speech,  a  dis- 
course, science,  or  knowledge  ;  oi*  (from  logica,  L.)  the  art  of 
reasoning,  or  the  right  use  of  reason ;  the  laws  of  thought,  or 
of  argument. 


Logic 
Logic  al 
Logic  al  \y 
Logic  ian 
Log  arithm 
Log  arithm  ic 
Log  arithm  ic  al 
Log  arithm  etic 
Log  arithm  etic  al 
Log  arithm  etic  al  ly 
Logi  Stic 
Logi  Stic  al 
Logo  graphy 
Logo  griph 
Logo  machy 
Logo  mach  ist 
Logo  meter 
Logo  metr  ic 
Logo  metr  ic  al 
Logo  thete 
Logo  type 

Aero  logy 
Aero  log  ist 
Aero  logic  aJ 

Ambi  logy 

Amphi  logy 
Amphi  bio  logy 
Amphi  bio  logic  al 

Amphi  bo  logy 
Amphi  bo  logic  al 
Amphi  bo  logic  al  Ij 


Ana  logy 
Ana  \ogal 
Ana  logic  al 
Ana  logic  al  ly 
Ana  logic  al  ness 
Ana  log  ism 
Ana  log  ize 
Ana  log  iz  ed 
Ana  log  iz  ing 
Ana  logue 
Ana  log  ous 
Ana  log  ous  ly 
Ana  logon 
Un  ana  logic  al 

Angio  logy 

Antho  logy 
Antho  logic  al 

Anti  logy 
Anti  log  arithm 

Apo  logy 
Apo  log  etic 
Apo  log  etic  al 
Apo  log  etic  al  ly 
Apo  log  etics 
Apo  log  ist 
Apo  log  ize 
Apo  log  iz  ed 
Apo  log  iz  ing 
Apo  log  iz  er 
Apo  logue 
Apo  logu  er 


Areto  logy 
Astheno  logy 


Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 
Astro 


logy 

logic 
logic  al 
logic  al  ly 
log  er 
logi  an 
log  ize 
log  iz  ed 
log  iz  ing 
theo  logy 


Batto  logy 
Batto  log  ist 
Batto  log  ize 
Batto  log  iz  ed 
Batto  log  iz  ing 

Botano  logy 
Botano  log  ist 

Cata  logue 
Cata  logu  ed 
Cata  logu  ing 
Cata  log  ize 
Cata  log  iz  ed 
Cata  log  iz  ing 

Chiro  logy 
Chiro  log  ist 

Chronology 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Chrono  log  er 

Doxo  log  ize 

Etymo  log  ist 

Chrono  logic 

Doxo  log  iz  ed 

Etymo  log  ize 

Chrono  logic  al 

Doxo  log  iz  ing 

Etymo  log  iz  ed 

Chi'ono  log  ist 

Etymo  log  iz  ing 

Ckrono  logic  al  ly 

Ec  logue 

Eucho  logy 

Concho  logy 

Elogy 

Concho  log  ist 

E  log  ist 

Eu  logy 

Concho  logic  al 

E  logi  um 

Eu  logi  um 

E  loge 

Eu  logic 

Cranio  logy 

Eu  logic  al 

Cranio  log  ist 

Entero  logy 

Eu  logic  al  ly 

Cranio  logic  al 

Eu  log  ist 

Entomo  logy 

Eu  log  ist  ic 

Crypto  logy 

Entomo  logic  al 

Eu  log  ist  ic  al 

Entomo  Jog  ist 

Eu  log  ist  ic  al  ly 

Dactylo  logy 

Eu  log  ize 

Epi  logue 

Eu  log  iz  ed 

Deca  logue 

Epi  log  ize 

Eu  log  iz  ing 

Deca  log  ist 

Epi  log  iz  ed 

Epi  log  iz  ing 

Genea  logy 

Demono  logy 

Epi  log  ism 

Genea  log  ist 

Demono  log  ist 

Epi  log  ist  ic 

Genea  logic  al 

Epi  logic  al 

G^nea  logic  al  ly 

Dendro  logy 

Dendro  log  ist 

Ethno  logy 
Ethno  log  ist 

Genethlia  logy 

Dia  log  ize 

Ethno  logic 

Geo  logy 

Dia  log  iz  ed 

Ethno  logic  al 

Geo  log  ist 

Dia  log  iz  ing 

Geo  log  er 

Dia  log  ism 

Etho  logy 

Geo  logi  an 

Dia  log  ist 

Etho  log  ist 

Geo  logic  al 

Dia  log  ist  ic 

Etho  logic  al 

Geo  logic  al  ly 

Dia  log  ist  ic  al 

Geo  log  ize 

Dia  log  ist  ic  al  ly 

Etio  logy 

Geo  log  iz  ed 

Dia  logue 

Geo  log  iz  ing 

Dia  logu  ed 

Etymo  logy 

Dia  logu  ing 

Etymo  logic 

Gnomo  logy 

Dia  logue-writer 

Etymo  logic  al 

Gnomo  logic 

Etymo  logic  al  ly 

Gnomo  logic  al 

Doxo  logy 

Etymo  logic  on 

Dozo  logic  al 

Etymo  log  er 

Helmintho  logy 

43 


44 


THE   BLACK-BOABD. 


Hiero  logy 
Hiero  log  ist 

Historio  logy 

Homo  logy 
Homo  log  0U3 

Horo  logy 
Horo  loge 
Horo  logic  al 
Horo  logio  graphy 
Horo  logio  graph  er 
Horo  logio  graph  ic 

Hydro  logy 
Hydro  log  ist 

Hymno  logy 

Ichthyo  logy 
Ichthyo  log  ist 
Ichthyo  logic  al 

n  logic  al 
II  logic  al  ly 
II  logic  al  ness 

Macro  logy 

Manto  logy 

Martyro  logy 
Martyro  log  ist 
Martyro  logic  al 
Martyto  loge 

Meno  logy 

Meteoro  logy 
Meteoro  log  ist 
Meteoro  logic 


Meteoro  logic  al 

Minera  logy 
Minera  log  ist 
Minera  logic 
Minera  logic  al 
Minera  logic  al  ly 

Mono  logue 
Mono  log  ist       ~ 


Myo  logy 
Myo  logic  al 

Myco  logy 
Myco  logic 
Myco  logic  al 

Mytho  logy 
Mytho  log  ist 
Mytho  log  er 
Mytho  logic 
Mytho  logic  al 
Mytho  logic  al  ly 
Mytho  log  ize 
Mytho  log  iz  ed 
Mytho  log  iz  ing 
Mytho  log  (g)raph 
Mytho  logue 

Necro  logy 
Necro  log  ist 
Necro  logic 
Necro  logic  al 

Neo  logy 
Neo  logi  an 
Neo  logi  an  ism 
Neo  logic 
Neo  logic  al 
Neo  log  ism 
Neo  log  ist 


Neo  log  ist  ic 
Neo  log  ist  ic  al 
Neo  log  ize 
Neo  log  iz  ed 
Neo  log  iz  ing 
Neo  log  iz  ation 

Neuro  logy 
Neuro  log  ist 
Neuro  logic  al 

Noso  logy 
Noso  log  ist 
Noso  logic  al 

Onto  logy 
Onto  log  ist 
Onto  logic 
Onto  logic  al 
Onto  logic  al  ly 

Ornitho  logy 
Ornitho  log  ist 
Ornitho  logic 
Ornitho  logic  al 
Ornithichno  logy 

er  Osteo  logy 
Osteo  log  ist 
Osteo  log  er 
Os,teo  logic 
Osteo  logic  al 
Osteo  logic  al  ly 

Pantheo  logy 
Pantheo  log  ist 

Panto  logy 
Panto  log  ist 
Panto  logic  al 

Paradoxo  logy 


ETTMOLOGT. 


45 


Para  logy 
Para  log  ism 
Para  log  ize 
Para  log  iz  ed 
Para  log  iz  ing 

Patho  logy 
Patho  log  ist 
Patho  logic 
Patho  logic  al 

Petro  logy 

Pharmaco  logy 
Pharmaco  log  ist 

Philo  logy 
Philo  log  ist 
Philo  log  er 
Philo  logic 
Philo  logic  al 
Philo  logic  al  ly 
Philo  log  ize 
Philo  log  iz  ed 
Philo  log  iz  ing 

Photo  logy 
Photo  logi7  al 

Phraseo  logy 
Phraseo  log  ist 
Phraseo  logic 
Phraseo  logic  al 

Phreno  logy 
Phreno  log  ist 
Phreno  log  er 
Phreno  logic 
Phreno  logic  al 
Phreno  logic  al  ly 

Physico  theo  logy 


Physio  logy 
Physio  log  ist 
Physio  log  er 
Physio  logic 
Physio  logic  al 
Physio  logic  al  ly 

Phyto  logy 
Phyto  log  ist 
Phyto  logic  al 

Pneumato  logy 
Pneumato  log  ist 
Pneumato  logic  al 

Poly  logy 

Pro  logue 
Pro  log  ize 
Pro  log  iz  ed 
Pro  log  iz  ing 
Pro  log  iz  er 
Pro  syl  log  ism 

Pseudo  logy 
Pseudo  log  ist 

Psycho  logy 
Psycho  log  ist 
Psycho  logic 
Psycho  logic  al 
Psycho  logic  al  ly 

Somato  logy 

Syl  log  ism 
Syl  log  ist  ic 
Syl  log  ist  ic  al 
Syl  log  ist  ic  al  ly 
Syl  log  ize 
Syl  log  iz  ed 
Syl  log  iz  ing 


Syl  log  iz  er 
Syl  log  iz  ation 


Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 
Tauto 


logy 

log  ist 
log  ous 
logic 
logic  al 
logic  al  ly 
log  ize 
log  iz  ed 
log  iz  ing 


Techno  logy 
Techno  logic  al 

Theo  logy 
Theo  log  ist 
Theo  log  er 
Theo  logi  an 
TheoSiogic 
Theo  logic  al 
Theo  logic  al  ly 
Theo  log  ics 
Theo  logue 
Theo  log  aster 
Theo  log  ize 
Theo  log  iz  ed 
Theo  log  iz  ing 

A  theo  logy 
A  theo  logi  an 

Typo  logy 

Zoo  logy 
Zoo  log  ist 
Zoo  log  er 
Zoo  logic  al 
Zoo  logic  al  ly 


46  THE  BLACK-BOABD. 


EXERCISES  FOB  THE  BLACK-BOABD. 

The  following  words  axe  designed  as  exercises  \n  pronun- 
ciation, articulation,  accentuation,  spelling,  defining,  and 
derivation. 

One  method  of  using  them. 

Let  a  certain  number  of  the  words  be  assigned  beforehand, 
as  a  lesson,  for  the  scholars  to  study  out  in  their  dictionaries  ; 
in  which,  if  they  understand  the  use,  they  will  find  all  the 
necessaiy  information.  At  the  time  appointed  for  the  exer- 
cise, let  the  teacher  put  out  the  words  in  whatever  order  he 
pleases.  Let  him  pronounce  each  word  correctly,  with  a  dis- 
tinct articulation,  and  a  proper  accent.  In  like  manner,  let 
all  the  scholars  pronounce,  at  once,  the  word  after  him,  and 
then  write  it  on  the  black-hoard,  or  on  their  slates,  and  put  the 
mark  of  accent  in  its  proper  place.  After  all  the  words  ia 
the  lesson  have  been  put  out,  and  written  down,  as  above 
directed,  let  each  scholar,  in  turn,  pronounce,  articulate,  and 
accentuate  the  words  again ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  spell 
his  particular  word,  as  he  has  written  it  down,  and  give  its 
definition.  In  spelling,  e^ch  syllable  should  be  pronounced 
by  itself;  and  in  defining,  the  definitions  should  be  pertinent 
and  complete. 

Another  method  of  using  them. 

As  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative,  simple  or  com- 
pound, each  word  should  be  examined  with  regard  to  each  of 
these  particulars.  Let  a  certain  number  of  the  words,  as  be- 
fore directed,  be  assigned  for  a  lesson ;  and  let  each  scholar 
be  required  to  consult  his  dictionary  for  information,  as  to  the 
etymology  of  the  words.  At  the  time  appointed  for  the  exer- 
cise, let  the  teacher  put  out  the  words  in  whatever  order  he 
pleases  ;  and  let  each  scholar  write  them  down  on  the  black- 
board. Then  let  each  word  be  examined  with  regard  to  its 
etymon  or  root,  and  also  with  regard  to  its  formation.  If  it 
be  a  primitive  word,  what  words  are  derived  from  it  ?  and 
how  are  ihey  formed'^  Let  the  whole  family  of  words,  or 
as  many  as  can  be  recollected,  with  their  prefixes  and  affixes^ 
be  pointed  out,  and  written  on  the  black-board.  If  it  be  a 
derivative  word,  what  is  its  etymon  oi  rootf  frum  which  it  is 


TABLE   OF    WORDS. 


47 


derived  ?  and  bow  is  it  formed  ?  Let  the  whole  family  of 
words  derived  from  the  same  root,  with  their  prefixes  and 
affixes,  be  pointed  out,  and  written  on  the  black-board.  If 
it  be  a  simple  word,  pursue  the  same  course  as  with  a  primi- 
tive word.  If  it  be  a  compound  word,  let  its  component  parts 
be  pointed  out,  &c. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


9r  > 

3.  I 


•  Arabic. 


Ar.  or 
Arab. 

D.  ••• Dutch. 

Dan. Danish. 

Fr. French. 

Gr. Greek. 

Heb. Hebrew. 


Icel. Icelandic. 

It.  •  •  •• Italian. 

L. Latin. 

Sax. Saxon. 

Sp. Spanish. 

Teu. Teutonic. 

W. Welsh. 


Note. — A  large  proportion  of  the  following  words  are  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  languages.  It  is 
not  always  easy  to  determine  whether  a  word  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  Greek,  or  French.  The  etymon  or  root  is  so  nearly 
the  same,  that  it  may  as  well  be  derived  from  the  one,  as  from 
either  of  the  others.  On  this  point,  etymologists  themselves 
frequently  differ. 

TABLE    OF   WORDS. 


Ahdiicate^  L. 
-4Muce,  L. 
Ab^uve,  L. 
Abnegate,  L. 
AbrogcUe,  L. 
^fecind,  L. 
Abs  tract,  L. 
Academy,  L. 
Accidence,   L. 
Ac  claim,  L. 
Accoutre,  Fr. 
Accuhation,  L. 
Acerbity,  L. 
Acid  ity,  L. 
Acousttc*,  Gr. 
Acrostic,  Gr. 


Acumen,  L. 
Adamant,  L. 
^rfduce,  L. 
^d'here,  L. 
Adjoin,  Fr. 
^c?  judge,  Fr. 
^rfjunct,  L. 
^e?jure,  L. 
Ad  minister,  L. 
Ad  monish,  L. 
Ad  move,  L. 
Advocate,  L. 
Ag  glomerate,  L. 
Aggrandize,  Fr. 
Aggregate,  L. 
Agran'an,  L. 


Agri  culture,  L. 
A  la  mode,  Fr. 
^fchymy,  Ar. 
-4^cohol,  Ar. 
-4Zcoran,  Ar. 
^fcove,  Sp. 
Algebra^  Ar. 
Allegory,  Gr. 
-4nigate,  L. 
Alliteration,  L. 
Alpha  bet,   Gr. 
Amalgam  ate,  Fr. 
A-manu-ensis,  L. 
Amatory,  L. 
Ambi-dextr-ous,  L. 
Ambi-gu-ity,  L. 


48 


THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


Ambulation,  L. 
Amenity,  L. 
Amnesty,  Gr. 
Amorous,  L. 
AmpM-bi-ous,  L. 
Amphi  theatre,  Gr. 
Amputate,  L. 
Analogy,  Gr. 
-Analysis,  Gr. 
Anarchy,  Gr. 
Anatomy,  Gr. 
Ancestry,  L. 
Anglicism. 
Anhelose,  L. 
Annihilate,  L. 
^wodyne,  Gr. 
Anomaly,  Gr. 
-4nonymoMS,  Gr. 
Ante  date,  L. 
Ante  penult,  L. 
Anthology,  Gr. 
Antidote,  Gr. 
Antipatlry,  Gr. 
Antiiihrasis,  Gr. 
Antipodes,  Gr. 
Anti  thesis,  Gr. 
Anti  type,  Gr. 
-4p^orism,  Gr. 
-Apocrypha,  Gr. 
-4joostrophe,  Gr. 
-^joprecia^e,  L. 
Ap  proximate,  L. 
Aquatic,  L. 
AqueoMs,  L. 
AraWe,  L. 
ArchcBology,  Gr. 
Arche  type,  L. 
^rcAitect,  L. 
Archives,  L. 
Arid  ity,  L. 
^mfocracy,  Gr. 
Arithmefi'c,  Gr. 


Armi  potent,  L. 
-4rmzstice,  L. 
Arm  ory,  L. 
Arrogate,  L. 
ArsenaZ,  It. 
Ascetic,  Gr. 
-4sperse,  L. 
Assiduity,  L. 
-4ssimila<e,  L. 
Micrography,  Gr. 
^serology,  Gr. 
Astronomy,  Gr. 
A  theism,  Gr. 
Athlet^c,  Gr. 
At  tinge,  L. 
AudiWe,  L. 
-^Mn'cular,  L. 
Autograph,  Gr. 
-^Mtomaton,  Gr. 
Avoir-du-pois,  Fr. 
Axiom,  Gr. 

Bacchanal,  L. 
Baih;^  Fr. 
Bale/<  Fr. 
Ballad,  It. 
Balustra/:?e,  Fr. 
Bank  rupt,  Fr. 
Barbamm,  L. 
Baro  meter,  Gr. 
Barricac?e,  Fr. 
Barrister. 
Basih's^,  Gr. 
Beatij^c,  L. 
Belles  lettres,  Fr. 
Belli  gerent,  L. 
Bene  diction,  L. 
Bene  faction,  L. 
Be  scatter. 
Be  seem,  Icel. 
Be  speak. 
Be  stow  menty  Sax. 


Bi  angular,  L. 
BibaciOMs,  L. 
^tWiographer,  Gr. 
BibliotheosX,  Gr. 
^icornous,  L. 
Bi  corporal,  L. 
Bigamy,  L. 
Bin  ocular,  L. 
.biography,  Gr. 
^'ped,  L. 
Bi  quadrate,  L. 
Bisect,  L. 
Bis  sextile,  L. 
Blaspheme,  Gr. 
Bombast,  Teut. 
Boreas,  L. 
Botany,  Gr. 
Brachial,  L. 
BreviVy,  L. 
Bribery,  Fr. 
Bronchia/,  L. 
Brumal,  L. 
Brunette,  Fr. 
Brutal  ize,  L. 
Bucolic,  L. 
Buifoon  ej-y,  Fr. 
Bulb  ous,  L. 
Bull  finch. 
Bulwark,  D. 
Buoy  ant,  Fr. 
Bureau,  Fr. 
Burgeois,  Fr. 
Burglar  y. 
Burlesque,  Fr. 
Buskin,  D. 
Butler,  Fr. 
Buxom. 

Cadaverous,  L. 
Calcareojfs,  L. 
Calcine,  Fr. 
Cole  faction,  L. 


TABLE    OP   WORDS. 


4d 


Calend  ar,  L. 
Caliber,  Fr. 
Calonc,  L. 
Calumniate,  L. 
Canine,  L. 
Cannibal. 
Cannon  ade,  Fr. 
Canon  ize,  Fr. 
Canopy,  Gr. 
Capitulate,  L. 
Caricature,  It. 
Garni-vor-ous,  L. 
Castigate,  L. 
Catacombs,  Gr. 
Catech^^e,  Gr. 
Category,  Gr. 
Cathartic,  Gr. 
Catholic  on,  Gr. 
Caustic,  Gr. 
Celibacy,  L. 
Cemetery,  Gr. 
Cenotaph,  Gr. 
Ce?Jtenary,  L. 
Centennial,  L. 
Cenfn'fugal,  L. 
Centripetal,  L. 
Centurion,  L. 
Chandelier,  Fr. 
Chaotic,  Gr. 
Chicanery,  Fr. 
Chimera,  L. 
C/«'rography,  Gr. 
C/«Vurgeon,  Gr. 
Chivalry,  Fr. 
Choler  ic,  L. 
Ci^ronography,  Gr. 
Chromatic,  Gr. 
Chronic,  Gr. 
Chronology,  Gr. 
Churl  ish. 
Chymist  ry,  Gr. 
Circle,  L. 


Circum  ambulate,  L, 
Oircum-fer-ence,  L. 
Circum  scribe,  L. 
CircMmvolve,  L. 
Clandestine,  L. 
Clarion,  Fr. 
ClericaZ^  Fr. 
Climax,  Gr. 
Cloister,  Fr. 
Coalesce,  L. 
Codici7,  L. 
Co  equal,  L. 
Co  eternal,  L. 
Coeval,  L. 
Go  exist,  L. 
Cognition,  L. 
Cognizance,  Fr. 
Go  habit,  L. 
Col  lapse,  L. 
CoHate,  L. 
Col  league,  L. 
Col  locate,  L. 
CoHoquia?,  L. 
Colorize,  L. 
Com  mingle. 
Commute,  L. 
Compend,  L. 
Complicate,  L. 
Component,  L. 
Composite,  L. 
Com  press,  L. 
Con  catenate,  L. 
Concoct,  L. 
Concrete,  L. 
Concussion,  L. 
Confabulate,  L. 
Confiscate,  L. 
Con  fluent,  L. 
Con  glomerate,  L. 
Con  gratula^e,  L. 
Conjugate,  L. 
Contagioz^,  L. 


Contingent,  L. 
Contradict,  L. 
Contrayane,  L. 
Contusion,  L. 
Convoco^e,  L. 
Convulse,  L. 
Go  operate,  L. 
Co  ordinate,  L. 
Copulative,  L. 
Corinth  ian. 
Corona/,  L. 
Corpule?*^,  L. 
Cor  relatiW,  L. 
Corroborate,  L. 
Cosmetic,  Gr. 
Cosmography,  Gr. 
Cosmopolitan,  Gr. 
Counter  act,  L. 
Counter  march,  Fr. 
Counter  mine,  Fr. 
Cranium,  L. 
Crayon,  Fr. 
Credulity,  L. 
Crystal,  Gr. 
Culinary,  L. 
Culminate,  L. 
CulpaWe,  L. 
Cumber  some. 
Cup  board. 
Cursory,  L. 
Cutaneous,    L. 
C^c/opaedia,  Gr. 
Cylinder,  Gr. 

Dactyl  ic,  L. 
Debonair,  Fr. 
Decagon,  Gr. 
ZJecalogue,  Gr. 
Decapitate,  L. 
Decennial,  L. 
Decimal,  L. 
De  cipher,  Fr. 


50 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


decoct,  L. 
Deducible,  L. 
Deductive,  L. 
Defalcate,  L. 
Defection,  L. 
/)efunct,  L. 
Z)eisni,  L. 
Delectable,  L. 
Z)eletenoi<«,  L. 
Z)elinque/?<,  L. 
Z)elusiVc,  L. 
Democracy,  Gr. 
Z^enigroie,  L. 
Denta/,  L. 
Denude,  L. 
Z)e  populate,  L. 
Deprecate,  L. 
Z>epreda^e,  L. 
De-re-\iction,  L. 
Derision,  L. 
Derogate,  L. 
-De  scribe,  L. 
Despot  »sm,  Gr. 
Detergent,  L. 
Detersive,  L. 
Z)e  throne,  L. 
Z)etrunca^e,  L. 
jDevasta^e,  L. 
De-vi-ous,  L. 
Z)e  vote,  L. 
Dextero?w,  L. 
Diabolic  al,  L. 
Diagonal,  Gr. 
Z>eagram,  Gr. 
Z>ialect,  Gr. 
Z>ia  meter,  Gr. 
Diapason,  Gr. 
Diffusive,  L. 
Z>i  lacerate,  L. 
ZH'  lapidate,  L. 
Dilatori/,  L. 
2>t  lemma,  Gr. 


2)/pAthong,  Gr. 
2?is  able. 
Dis  comfit,  Fr. 
jDjscreet,  L. 
Dis  gorge,  Fr. 
Z^^'sjunctive,  L. 
Dis  locafe,  L. 
Dis  parity,  L. 
Dis  repute,  L. 
Dis  syllable,  Gr. 
Dis  tentiow,  L. 
DiurnaZ,  L. 
Z>ivergen?,  L. 
DocikV^,  L. 
Doctrine,  L. 
Dogmatism,  L. 
Doley^Z,  L. 
Dominate,  L, 
Dormitory,  L. 
Doxology,  Gr. 
Drama,  Gr. 
Druid. 
Dryad,  L. 
Z^Modecimo,  L. 
Duplicate,  L. 
Duplic^Vy,  L. 
Dynasty,  Gr. 

^ccentrzc,  L. 
jficclesiastzc,  L. 
Eclectic,  Gr. 
jE'clogue,  Gr. 
lEdacity,  L. 
Edible,  L. 
Effervesce,  L. 
Effrontery,  L. 
Effusion,  Li. 
Egotism,  L. 
Z^jacula^e,  L. 
Z^labora^e,  L. 
£  lapse,  L. 
Electricity,  Gr. 


Elegy,  Gr. 
Elision,  L. 
Z^nipsis,  Gr. 
Elocution,  L. 
Elysium,  L. 
jE}m  balm,  Fr. 
Embezzle,  Fr. 
Z^mblem,  Gr. 
Emetic,  Gr. 
,.£V?^jphasis,  Gr. 
Empiric,  Gr. 
Z^porium,  Gr. 
Empyrean,  Gr. 
ZJ/icomium,  Gr. 
£/n  cyclopsddia,  Gr. 
£/n  franchise,  Fr.' 
Ml  grave,  D. 
Enigma,  Gr. 
^  nuncia^e,  L. 
J^idemic,  Gr. 
J^ilogue,  Gr. 
j^itaph,  Gi'. 
Z^itome,  Gr. 
EquaWe,  L. 
£qui  lateral,  L. 
Equinox,  L. 
Erratic,  L. 
Erudite,  L. 
M-ysipelas,  Gr. 
Esculent,  L. 
Escutcheon,  Fr. 
Ethics,  Gr. 
Etiquette,  Fr. 
JEtymologj,  Gr. 
Etymon,  Gr. 
-£?wcharist,  Gr. 
I^ulogy,  Gr. 
^Mphony,  Gr. 
Evangelic,  Gr. 
Mx  asperate,  L. 
£!x  cogitate,  L. 
JExculpate,  L. 


TABLE    OF   "WORDS. 


51 


Exodus,  Gr. 
Exonerate,  L. 
JSxorcism,   Gr. 
JExovdium,  L. 
Expectorate,  L. 
JSxpedite,  L. 
JSxplosive,  L. 
Expulsive,  Li. 
Extant,  L. 
Extempore,  L. 
Extra  judicio/,  L. 
Extra  ordinary,^  L. 
-Krtrinsic,  L, 
Exuviae,  L. 

Fabnc,  L. 
FabuloMs,  L. 
FacetioMs,  Fr. 
FacihVy,  L. 
Factory,  L. 
FallacioMs,  L. 
FaWible,  L. 
Fanate'c,  L. 
Fantastic,  Gr. 
Farce,  Fr. 
FarinaceoMS,  L. 
Farraginoiw,  L. 
Fastidio«.?,  L. 
Feasible,  Fr. 
Yecundtty,  L. 
Felicitoj^,  L. 
Feline,  L. 
Felon  y,  Fr. 
FeraoraZ,  L. 
Ferocity,  L. 
Ferreoiw,  L. 
Feuda/,  L. 
Filial,  L. 
Filtrate,  L. 
Finance,  Fr. 
Finesse,  Fr. 
Fisc  al,  L. 


Flaccid,  L. 
FiagitioMS,  L. 
Flambeau,  Fr. 
Flora/,  L. 
Folict^re,  L. 
Folio,  L. 
Eore  cast,  Dan. 
Eore  close,  L. 
Forgerj^,  Fr. 
Fortuitoiis,  L. 
Eour  score,  Icel. 
Fraction,  L. 
Fractwre,  L. 
Frange'i/e,  L. 
Fraternal,  L. 
Fratricitfe,  L. 
Fricassee,  Fr. 
Frictzow,  L. 
Frigid,  L. 
Erondi-fer-ous,  L. 
Fructi^,  L. 
Erugi-fer-otis,  L. 
Fruiti'ow,  L. 
FugSLcity,  L. 
Fulminate,  L. 
Fumigate,  L. 
Furtive,  L. 
Fusible,  L. 
Futile,  L.  , 

Galaa:y,  Gr. 
Gamut,  Sp. 
Gangrene,  Fr. 
GarruloiM,  L. 
Gastriloquj,  Gr. 
Gelid,  L. 
GerminoM*,  L. 
Genealogy,  Gr. 
Genesis,  Gr. 
Genu  flection,  L. 
(reography,  Gr. 
Ceology,  Gr. 


Geometry,  Gr. 
GeorgiV,  Gr. 
Germinate,  L. 
GibboM*,  L. 
Glaciate,  L. 
Glandi-fer-ous,  L. 
Glomerate,  L. 
Gnomon,  Gr. 
Grormandi2:«,  Fr. 
Graduate,  L. 
Grammar,  Gr. 
Granary,  L. 
Grani-vor-ous,  L. 
GranuloMs,  Fr. 
Graphic,  Gr. 
Gratula^e,  L. 
Graze,  Sax. 
Gregarious,  L. 
Grimace,  Fr. 
Grotesque,  Fr. 
Gustatiora,  L. 
Gutter  al,  L. 
Gymnastic,  Gr. 
Gyves,  W. 

Halcyon,  L. 
Hallelujah,  Heb. 
Hammock,  Sp. 
Harangue,  Fr. 
Harlequin,  Fr. 
Harmony,   Gr. 
Harp-si-chord,  Fr. 
Haut-boy,  Fr. 
Heathen  ism. 
Hebdomadal,  L. 
HecatomJ,  Gr. 
Hemi  sphere,  Gr. 
Hemistic,  Gr. 
Heptagon,   Gr. 
Heptarchy,  Gr. 
Herald  ry,  Fr. 
Heresy,  Gr. 


62 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


Hermit  age,  Fr. 
Heterodox,   Gr. 
Heterogeneous,  Gr. 
Hexagow,  Gr. 
Hexa  meter,  Gr. 
Hex  angular,  G.&L 
Hiatus,  L. 
Hiberna/,  L. 
Hierarchj,  Gr. 
^'e?-oglyphic,  Gr. 
Hilarity,  L. 
jKjapopotamus,  Gr. 
HistoriograTpher,  Gr, 
History,  Gr. 
Hodiernal,  L. 
Homicide,  L. 
Homogeneous,  L. 
Hortatory,  L. 
Horti  culture,  L. 
HostihVy,  L. 
Humid  iVy,  L. 
Hydra,  L. 
Hydraulics,  Gr. 
.^rfrocephalus,  Gr. 
.^rf?-ography,  Gr. 
Hydro  meter,  Gr. 
J%rfrophobia,  Gr. 
Hydrostatic,  Gr. 
Hyperbole,  Gr. 
.^joerborean,  L. 
Hyper  critic  aZ,  Gr. 
Hypocrite,  Gr. 
^joostasis,  Gr. 
^joo  thesis,  Gr. 
Hysterics,  Gr. 

Ignite,  L. 
/^  legal,  L. 
77  licit,  L. 
//  logic  al,  L. 
7Zlu8i?;«,  L. 
J5wbibe,  L. 


Im  maculafe,  L. 
/mmerse,  L. 
i;«  mure,  L. 
Im  peccaWe,  L. 
Im-per-vi-ous,  L. 
.  /wcarcera^e,  L. 
i«carnaie,  L. 
incognito,  L. 
^  combustz'We,  L. 
In  com  press  i6fe,  L. 
In  congruoMS,  L. 
-Z»  corrupt  ible,  L. 
^cuba^e,  L. 
in  cumbered,  L. 
In  decorous,  L. 
indent  ure,  L. 
IndigenoMS,  L. 
indurate,  L. 
In  ex  press  ible,  L. 
^  extricaWe,  L. 
In  fallifiZe,  L. 
infanticic?e,  L. 
In  flame,  L. 
^i  flexiWe,  L. 
In  irangible,  L. 
in  germinate,  L. 
inhume,  L. 
in  lapidaie,  L. 
In  nocuous,  L. 
In  noxious,  L. 
In  scribe,  L. 
In  stable,  L. 
^  tract  able,  L. 
Integra/,  L. 
interdict,  L. 
Interfere,  L. 
in^er  lapse,  L. 
^^erregnum,  L. 
^ier  scribe,  L. 
intolerant,  L. 
Intro  duce,  L. 
Invective,  L. 


^vinciJZe,  L. 
IrasctWe,  L. 
Ireful,  L. 
Ironic  oZ,  Gr. 
/r  re  fvagable,  L. 
irrigate,  L. 
Isolated,  Fr. 
Isosceles,  Gr. 
Isthmus,  Gr. 
Itera^Cf  L. 
Itinerant,  L. 

Jehovah,  Heb. 
Jejune,  L. 
Jocular,  L. 
JoviaZ,  L. 
Jubilee,  Fr. 
Judaism. 
Judge,  Fr. 
Jugular,  L. 
Juns  dictzon,  L. 
Juris  prudejiee,  L. 
Juxta  position,  L. 

Kennel,  Fr. 
Ker  chief,  Fr. 
Kidnap  per. 
Kilderim,  D. 
King  dom. 
Knap  sack,  Ger. 
Knavery. 
Knight  hood. 
Knowledge. 
Knuckle. 

LabiaZ,  L. 
Labor,  L. 
Labyrinth,  L. 
Lacerate,  L. 
Lachryma/,  L. 
Laconic,  L. 
Lacteous,  L. 


TABLE    OF    WOEDS. 


53 


Lambierat,  L. 
Lamina,  L. 
Lampoon,  Fr. 
Lania^e,  L. 
Lapidate,  L. 
Larynx,  Gr. 
LassitMc?e,  L. 
Latera/,  L. 
Laureate,  L. 
Legend  ary,  L. 
LegisXsXure,  L. 
Legitimate,  L. 
Lenient,  L. 
Leonzwe,  L. 
Leprosy,  L. 
LethdiV^,  Gr. 
Xexzcographer,  Gr. 
Lexicon,  Gr. 
Libatiow,  L. 
Libell  o««s,  L. 
LibidinoMs,  L. 
Licentiozts,  L. 
Ligament,  L. 
LigneoM5,  L. 
Lineage,  L. 
Linear,  L. 
Lique/y,  L. 
ZtVAography,  Gr. 
LitigioM*,  L. 
Local  ity,  L. 
Xoco  motion,  L. 
Zo^arithms,  Gr. 
Logic  al  ly,  L. 
Xo^romachy,  Gr. 
Long  evi  ty,  L. 
LoquaczVy,  L. 
Lotiora,  L; 
Lubricate,  L. 
Lunacy,  L. 
Lunafjio/i,  L. 
Lymphatic,  L. 
Lyric  al,  L. 


Macei'afe,  L. 
Maculate,  L. 
Madrigal. 
Magnet  ism,  L. 
Male  dxciion,  L. 
J/a/e  factio/i,  L. 
Malign  ity,  Fr. 
Manoeuvre,  Fr. 
Manu  facture,  L. 
JH/arawmit,  L. 
Manu  script,  L. 
Martyr  dom,  Gr. 
Masqueratfe,  Fr. 
Massacre,  Fr. 
Mathematics,  Gr. 
Matricide,  L. 
Matriculatio»,  L. 
Mausoleum,  L. 
Maxillary,  L. 
Mechanic,  L. 
Melli-fer-otis,  L. 
Melli-jiu-ent,  L. 
Jfefody,  Gr. 
MendaciVy,  L. 
Mendicawi,  L. 
Menia/. 
Mercenary,  L. 
MersioM,  L. 
Metal  lie,  L. 
Jfetophor,  Gr. 
J!/eto  phrase,  Gr. 
Meta  physics,  Gr. 
il!/c<eorology,  Gr. 
ilfe^ropolis,  L. 
Michael  mas. 
Micro  scope,  Gr. 
Migration,  L. 
J^Yfennium,  L. 
il!/i«eralogy,L.  &  Gr. 
J^'santhrope,  Gr. 
Miscellany,  L. 
Jfiscreant,  Fr. 
5* 


Missive,  L. 
Mitigate,  L. 
Mobility,  L. 
Moiety,  Fr. 
MoUi/y,  L. 
-Monarchy,  Gr. 
iUfbnastery,  L. 
Mono  chord,  Gr, 
Jfonody,  Gr. 
il^nologue,  Gr. 
Mono  syllable,  Gr. 
ik?bnotony,  Gr. 
MuliebriVy,  L. 
MuUi-fari-ous,  L. 
Multi  form,  L. 
Mundane,  L. 
Musician,  Gr. 
Mutai^e,  L. 
Mutilate,  L. 
Mutiny,  Fj% 
Myrmidon,  Gr. 
Mystery,  Gr. 
Mythology,  Gr. 

Naiad,  Gr. 
Narcotic,  Gr. 
Narrate,  L. 
Nasal,  L. 
Natal,  L. 
Nauseate,  L. 
Nautic  al,  Li. 
NebuloMS,  L. 
Necromancy,  Gr. 
Nectar,  L. 
Ne-fari-ous,  L. 
Negocia^e,  Fr. 
Nidi-fication,  L. 
Nigresce?i<,  L. 
JVoctumal,  L. 
iVbmenclatMrc,  L. 
JVon  entity,  L. 
JVbwpareil,  Fr. 


54 


THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


Novel  ty,  L. 
Novice,  L. 
Noxioifs,  L. 
Nuid-fer-ousj  L. 
Nuci-fer-ous,  L. 
Nucleus,  L. 
NudtVy,  L. 
Nugato?';^,  L. 
NuUi/y,  L. 
NuUiVy,  L. 
Nuptia/,  L. 
NursZin^. 
Nutritive,  L. 
Nymph,  L. 

Ob  duracy,  L. 
Obelisk,  L. 
ObestVy,  L, 
Oblate,  L. 
Obliviow,  L. 
OS  long,  L. 
Obloquy,  L. 
Oi  noxiozts,  L. 
Obscenity,  L. 
Ofeequioifs,  L. 
Obsolete,  L. 
Ohsimacy,  L. 
OS  streperotw,  L. 
Ofttrude,  L. 
OStuse,  L. 
Occident,  L. 
Occlude,  L. 
Octagon  al,  Gr. 
Oct  angular,  L. 
Octave,  L. 
Octavo,  L. 
Octennial,  L. 
Ocular,  L. 
Odori-fer-ous,  L. 
Olfactory,  Fr. 
Oligarchy,  Gr. 
OmiuozM,  L. 


Omni  potent,  L. 
Omwiscient,  L. 
Omni-vor-ous,  L. 
Onerows,  L. 
Ort^ology,  Gr. 
Opaque,  Fr. 
Oppugn,  L. 
Optic  al,  Gr. 
Option,  L. 
Oracle,  L. 
Orient  al,  L. 
Ornate,  L. 
Orthoepy,  Gr. 
Or^/iOgraphy,  Gr. 
Oscilafc,  L. 
Ossi^,  L. 
Osteology,  Gr. 
OvarioMS,  L. 
Ovi  form,  L. 
Oxy-gen,  Gr. 

Pagan  ism. 
Palmi-fer-ous,  L. 
Palm  ist-ry,  L. 
Panegyric,  Gr. 
Panoply,  Gr. 
Pantheon,  Gr. 
Pantomime,  Gr. 
Papa  cy,  L. 
Paradigm,  Gr. 
Paradox,  Gr. 
Paragraph,  Gr. 
Para  phrase,  Gr. 
Parieto/,  L. 
Parody,  Gr. 
Parric/efe,  L. 
Patriarch,  L. 
Pa^n'cian,  L. 
Patrimony,  L. 
PauctVy,  L. 
PeccaWe,  L. 
Pectora/,  L. 


Pec^agogue,  Gr. 
Pedant,  Fr. 
Pedesta/,  L. 
Pedigree. 
Pentagon,  Gr. 
Pen  ultimate,  L. 
Penury,  L. 
Per  ambulate,  L. 
Perennial,  L. 
Perfidy,  L. 
/^ri'phery,  Gr. 
Pen  phrase,  Gr. 
Per  oration,  L. 
Perquisite,  L. 
Per-vi-ous,  L. 
Pharmacy,  Gr.     ' 
Philippt'c,  L. 
Philology,  Gr. 
Phle-ho-tomy,  Gr. 
Phthisic,  Gr. 
Physiognomy,  Gr. 
Picturesque,  Fr. 
Pilaster,  Fr. 
Piscatory,  L. 
Plagiarism,  L. 
Plastic,  Gr. 
Plebeian,  L. 
Plenary,  L. 
Polemic,  L. 
Polyglot,  Gr. 
Polygon,  Gr. 
Poly  theism,  Gr. 
Ponder  oiis,  L. 
Pontiy,  L. 
Pos<  script,  L. 
Postulate,  L. 
Pragmatic,  Gr. 
Precocity,  L. 
Prelude,  L. 
Presbyter,  Gr. 
Prevaricate,  L. 
Primage,  L. 


TABLE    OP   WOEDS. 


65 


Pro  camhent,  L. 
Prophesy,  Gr. 
Proselyte,  Gr. 
Proto  type,  Gr. 
PugnaczoMs,  L. 

Quadr  angular,  L. 
Quadraw^,  L. 
Quadrennicd,  L. 
Quadruple,  L. 
Quarto,  L. 
Querulous,  L. 
Quiesce«<,  L. 
Quinqu  angular,  L, 
Quinquennial,  L. 
Quint  essence,  L. 
Quintaple,  L. 

RadicaZ,  L. 
Kadius,  L. 
Raillery,  Fr. 
RapaciVy,  L. 
Posjaberry. 
Ratio,  L. 
Pe  animate,  L. 
Pe  cantatiore,  L. 
Pe  capitulatz'o«,  L. 
PeceptiVe,  L. 
Peciproco^e,  L. 
Pechion,  L. 
Peclude,  L. 
Pecluse,  L. 
Pecogn^2e,  L. 
Pe  coil,  Fr. 
Pe  condzVe,  L. 
Pecreant,  Fr. 
Pe  criminal,  L. 
Pec<  angular,  L. 
Pecti  linear,  L. 
Pe  cumbenf,  L. 
Pe  fraction,  L. 
Pe  frangi  Jfe,  L. 


Pefrigero^e,  L. 
Regicirfe,  L. 
Regiment,  Fr. 
Regular  t'ti/,  L. 
Pe  Z7»  press  ion,  L. 
Pe  iterate,  L. 
Pe  lapse,  L. 
Pe  lucent,  L. 
Pe  migrate,  L. 
Reminiscence,  L. 
Pemonstrofe,  L. 
Peraunerafe,  L. 
Pe  nascent,  L. 
Penovate,  L. 
Repartee,  Fr. 
Peplicatt'on,  L. 
Pepository,  L. 
Reprieve,  Fr. 
Peprisal,  Fr. 
Peproba^e,  L. 
Pepudia^e,  L. 
Pe  pulse,  L. 
Pequiem,  L. 
Pescind,  L. 
Pe  scribe,  L. 
Pe  spire,  L. 
Pe  strict,  L. 
Pe  stringcwf,  L. 
Pesuscita^e,  L. 
Petro  grade,  L. 
Pe^rospect,  L. 
Phapsody,  Gr. 
Rhetoric,  Gr. 
Rheum,  Gr. 
Rhomb  oid,  Gr. 
RisiWe,  L. 
Romantic,  L. 
Roquelanre,  Fr. 
Rostrum,  L. 
Rotund  ity,  L. 
'Rueful. 
'Rutaiaate,  L. 


Rustic  ate,  L. 
Ruth/i^. 

Sabre,  Fr. 
SagaciVy,  L.      - 
Salad,  Fr. 
Salivate,  L. 
Salmon,  L. 
*Sa&  cellar,  L. 
Saltpetre,  L. 
Sanative,  L. 
Sanguinary,  L. 
Sanhedrim,  Gr. 
Sapient,  L. 
Sarcasm,  L. 
Satellite,  L. 
Satisfaction,  L. 
Saturate,  L. 
Sceptre,  Fr. 
Schedule,  L. 
Scheme,  Gr. 
Schism,  Gr. 
Scholium,  L. 
/Sciagraphy,  Gr. 
Scintillation,  L. 
Scissors,  L. 
>Se  cede,  L. 
ASeclude,  L. 
/Seduce,  L. 
Seize,  Fr. 
;Semi  circle,  L. 
ASemi  diameter,  L. 
Sensorium,  L. 
Septennial,  L. 
Septuagint,  L. 
Sergeant,  Fr. 
/Sexennial,  L. 
/Seartant,  L. 
Sieve,  Sax. 
Silicioi/s,  L. 
Simony,  L. 
Sinuoi<5,  L._ 


56 


THE   BLA.CK-BOAJRD. 


Sirius,  L. 
Stenography,  Gr. 
Stiletto,  It. 
Stereo  type,  Gr. 
Streperotw,  L. 
SuJAvLxmry,  L. 
Suborvif  L. 
Sub  scribe,  L. 
/Succinct,  L. 
Sttccurah,  L. 
Suffuse,  L. 
Super&cies,  L. 
Super  lunar,  L. 
Super  scribe,  L. 
Sur  cingle,  L. 
jSMrreptitioMS,  L. 
Suspiraiion,  L. 
Sycophant,  Gr. 
^j/Zlable,  Gr. 
/Syllogism,  Gr. 
/Symbol,  Gr. 
Symmetry,  Gr. 
/Symphony,  Gr. 
/Synchronism,  Gr. 
/Synod,  Gr. 
/Synonyme,  Gr. 
/Synopsis,  Gr. 
/Syntax,  Gr. 
Syn  thesis,  Gr. 

Taciturn  ity,  L. 
Talmud,  Heb. 
Tangent,  L. 
Tangible,  L. 
TantaU'ze,  L. 

Tarda  mount,  L.  & 
Tapestry,  Fr. 
Tart  ness,  Fr. 

TauioXogy,  Gr. 

T'aMtophony,  Gr. 
Technico/,  Gr. 

Technology,  Gr. 


Tegument,  L. 
TeZegraph,  Gr. 
Tele  scope,  Gr. 
TeracnVy,  L. 
Tenable,  L. 
Tension,  L. 
Tenuity,  L. 
Termagant,  Sax. 
TVrraqueous,  L. 
Terrene,  L. 
Theism,  Gr. 
Theocracy,  Gr. 
Theofoyy,  Gr. 
Theorem,  Gr. 
Theory,  Gr. 
Thermo  meter,  Gr. 
Thralrfom. 
Titillate,  L. 
TonsMre,  L. 
Topography,  Gr. 
Torrid,  L. 
Tortuot*s,  L. 
Tract  able,  L. 
Traduce,  L. 
7?a^edy,  L. 
Tranquil  lity,  L. 
Transcend,  L. 
Tran  scribe,  L. 
Tran  script,  L. 
Transfer,  L. 
Trans  fix,  L. 
Trans  form,  L. 
Trans  fuse,  L. 
Transgress,  L. 
Transit  ion,  L. 
F.  Translate,  L. 
Trans  lucent,  L. 
Trans  migrate,  L. 
Transmit,  L. 
Trans  mute,  L. 
Trans  pierce,  L. 
Tran  spire,  L. 


Trans  place,  Sax. 
Trans  plant,  L. 
Transport,  L. 
Transpose,  L. 
Transude,  L. 
Trans  verse,  L. 
Trapezium,  Gr. 
Trapezotc?,  Gr. 
Tri  angle,  L. 
Triennial,  L. 
Tr»  lateral,  L. 
Triphthong,  Gr. 
Tri  syllable,  L. 
Trium-vir-ate,  L. 
Truant,  Fr. 
Tubercfc,  L. 
Tumulose,  L. 
TurpitM<5?e,  L. 
Tutelaye,  L. 
Tweezers,  Fr. 
Typo  graphic  al,  Gr. 
Tyranny,  L. 

UbiquiVy,  L. 
Ulcer  ate,  L. 
Ultimate,  L. 
Ultra  marine,  L. 
Ultra  mundane,  L. 
Umbraye,  L. 
Umbrella,  L. 
Umpire. 
Unction,  L. 
Undecagon,  L.  &  Gr. 
Under  ling. 
Under  sell. 
Under  write. 
Undulafe,  L. 
Unicorn,  L. 
C/ni  form  iVy,  L. 
ZThe  verse,  L. 
ZTni  vocal,  L. 
Z7n  kind  ness. 


TABLE    OF    WORDS. 


57 


Tin  learn  ed. 

Un  manage  able. 

Tin  manner  ly. 

Un  popular  ity,  L. 

Un  pre  possesserf. 

Un  re  cover  ahU. 

Un  saiisfi/-i?ig,  L. 

Un  season  able  ness. 

Un  sur  mount  able. 

Un  translated,  L. 

Un  •warlike. 

Un  whole  S07ne. 

Up  right  7iess. 

Up  rising. 

Up  side  down. 

Uranology,  Gr. 
Use  ful  ness. 
Use  less  ness. 
Usurp  ing  ly. 
Utter  most. 

Uxori-ous  ness,  L. 

Vacc/ne,  L. 
Vacillate,  L. 
Vacuum,  L. 

Vale  dict^o»,  L. 

Vain  glorious  ly. 
Valor  ous  ly,  L. 
Value  less. 

Van  guard. 
Vanquish  er. 
Vapor  ish,  L. 
Variegate,  L. 
Vassal  age,  Fr. 
Yaiicide,  L. 

Veli-fer-oits,  L. 
Yelocity,  L. 
Venal  ity,  L. 
Vend  ible,  L. 
Venison,  Fr. 
Venom  ous  ness. 


Ventilate,  L. 

Ventriloquy,  L. 
Venture  some  ly. 
Yeracity,  L. 
Verbal  ly,  L. 
Verbero^e,  L. 
Verbia^re,  L. 

P'e/'dict,  L. 

Veri-fi-er,  L. 

Veri  similar,  L. 
Vermino^e,  L. 

Verm,i-vor-ous,  L. 

Femacular,  L. 

Versi-Ji-er,  L. 

Verti  go,  L. 
VestibM^,  L. 
Veteran,  L. . 
Vex  ing  ly. 
Vicarioi*s  ly,  L. 
Vicar  ship,  L. 

Fice  admiral  ty. 

Vice  gerent,  L. 

Viceroy,  Fr. 
Vicina^^,  L. 
Victor  c*s,  L. 
Victuals,  Fr. 
View  /ess. 
Vignette,  Fr. 
Vigor  ous  ness,  L. 
Y'mcible  ness,  L. 
Vindicate,  L. 
Vintage,  L. 
VirihVy,  L. 
Vitreo^<s  «ess,  L. 
Vitri/y,  L. 
Vituperate,  L. 
Vivaciotw,  L. 
Vocabulary,  L. 
Vocative,  L. 

Voci-fer-ous,  L. 
VolubihVy,  L. 
VoluptuoMs  wess,  L. 


VoracioMS  ness,  L. 
Vouch  so/e. 
Vulgar  ism,  L. 
VulnerafiZe,  L. 

"Wagon  er.  Sax. 
"WakeyM^  ness. 
Walk  ing  staff. 
TFo//  flower. 
Warden  ship,  D. 
liFe/  come  ness. 
Well  wish  er. 
West  ward  ly. 
Wharf  age. 
Where  so  ever. 
Widow  hood. 
Wife  hood. 
Wind  bound. 
Wire  draw  ing. 
Whtful  ly. 
Witch  craft. 
With  draw  ing. 
With  in  side. 
With  stand  er. 
Wit  hss  ly. 
Wit  /m^. 
WolfM. 

.Xyfobalsamum,  L. 
JS^fography,  Gr. 

Yean  ling. 
Year  Ztn^r. 
Jester  day,  Sax. 
Young  ling. 
Young  ster. 

Geography,  Gr. 
Zoology,  Gr. 
Zoophyte,  Gr. 
Zootomy,  Gr. 
Zymology,  Gr. 


METHOD  OF  TEACHING  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


NOUN. 


Let  the  teacher  begin  with  the  noun,  and  repeat  the  defini- 
tion, '  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  thing,  or  ^c?ea.' 
Let  him  continue  repeating  the  definition,  at  intervals,  while 
the  following  words  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

Man  Boy  George  Mother  Girl 

Boston  City  Town  Europe  State 

Book  Chair  Knife  Paper  Door 

Virtue  Love  Justice  Weight  Whim. 

Then,  with  a  rod  or  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of 
his  pupils  to  each  word  separately.  Commencing  with  the 
first,  let  him  say.  What  is  it  ?  Why  a  noun  ?  Is  it  tlie 
ncane  of  a.  person,  place,  thing,  or  id^a  ?  Let  him  pursue  the 
same  course  with  the  other  words,  and  the  definition  of  a 
noun  will  be  fully  understood. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  There  are  two  kinds  of  nouns, 
common  and  proper.  A  common  noun  is  a  general  name. 
A  proper  noun  is  an  individual  or  particular  name.'  Let 
him  continue  repeating  these  definitions,  at  intervals^  while 
the  following  words  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 


Scholar 
Teacher 
River 
Carriage 


Father 

Sister 
Army 
Book 


Mountain 
Pleasure 
Woman 
People 


Industry 
Gentleman 
Wisdom 
Assembly 


America  United  States  France  Pompey 

England  Massachusetts  London  Alps 

Washington  Roxbury  Charlestown  Nancy 

James  Africa  Penelope  Polk. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  separately,  and  ask.  What  is  it  ?  Why 
a  noun  ?  Which  kind  of  a  noun  ?  and  why  ?  In  this  way, 
he  will  soon  teach  his  pupils  to  distinguish  accurately  between 
common  and  proper  nouns. 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


59 


Xet  the  teacher  then  say,  *To  nouns  belong  number,  person, 
gender,  and  case.  They  have  two  numbers,  the  singular  and 
plural.  The  singular  number  means  but  one  ;  the  plural, 
more  than  owe.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  defini- 
tions, while  the  following  words  are  written  on  the  black- 
board :  — 


Book 

Books 

Knife 

Knives 

Man 

Men 

Boy 

Boys 

Life 

Lives 

Ox 

Oxen 

Cloud 

Clouds 

Lady 

Ladies 

Tooth 

Teeth 

Day 

Days 

Duty 

Duties 

Foot 

Feet 

House 

Houses 

Box 

Boxes 

Mouse 

Mice 

Tree 

Trees 

Church 

Churches 

Louse 

Lice. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  separately,  ask  the  appropriate  questions, 
and  give  further  explanations. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  Nouns  have  three  persons ;  the 
first,  second,  and  third.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 
The  second  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  to. 
The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  or 
about.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  definitions,  while 
the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board  :  — 

The  salutation  of  me,  J*aul,  with  mine  own  hand. 

I,  Victoria,  queen  of  England,  command  you,  my  officer,  to 
commit  the  traitor  to  prison. 

John  and  Nancy,  come  in :  I,  your  father,  wish  to  hear 
your  lesson. 

illy  friend,  you  know  that  a  life  o£  pleasure  and  dissipation 
is  an  enemy  to  health,  fortune,  and  character. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics  ;  and  ask.  What  person 
is  it  of?  and  why'}  In  this  way,  scholars  will  soon  learn  to 
distinguish  the  different  persons  of  nouns. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say, '  Nouns  are  said  to  have  four 
distinctions,  with  regard  to  gender  ;  the  masculine,  feminine, 
common,  and  neuter.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  males  ; 
the  feminine  gender,  females ;  the  common  gender,  either 
males  or  females  ;  and  the  neuter  gender,  neither  males 
nor  females.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  definitions, 
while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black- 
board :  — 


60 


THE    BLACK-BOARD. 


Father 

Mother 

Parent 

Paper 

Husband 

Wife 

Friend 

Book 

Son 

Daughter 

Child 

Bench 

Brother 

Sister 

Cousin 

Wind 

Man 

Woman 

Nurse 

Cambridge 

Boy 

Girl 

Rival 

Mercy 

Lord 

Lady 

Enemy 

Pencil 

Nephew 

Niece 

Bird 

Lamp 

Uncle 

Aunt 

Guide 

Chair. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  separately ;  and  ask,  What  is  its  gender  ? 
and  why  f  In  this  way,  scholars  will  soon  learn  to  distinguish 
the  different  genders  of  nouns. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  Nouns  have  four  cases ;  the 
nominative,  possessive,  objective,  and  vocative.  The  nomina- 
five  case  is  the  agent,  actor,  or  doer,  or  the  subject  of  a  verb. 
The  possessive  case  relates  to  property,  possession,  or  author- 
ship. The  objective  case  is  the  object  of  an  action,  or  of  a 
relation.  The  vocative  case  is  used  in  calling  a  person,  or  in 
making  a  direct  address.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these 
dejinitions,  while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the 
black-board :  — 

Charles  received  a  letter  from  his  sister. 

James  and  John  have  gone  to  school  in  Boston. 

The  school  of  experience  teaches  many  useful  lessons. 

Food,  clothing,  and  credit,  are  the  rewards  of  industry. 

The  scholar's  diligence  will  secure  his  teacher's  love. 

A  mother's  tenderness  and  a.  father's  care  are  nature's  gifts 
for  man's  advantage. 

My  son,  temper  the  vivacity  of  youth  with  a  proper  mix- 
ture of  serious  thought. 

Children,  obey  y out  parents  in  the  Lord. 

Boys,  comQ'm;  take  your  seats,  girls  ;  George,  speak  louder; 
bsten,  Jane. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  hig 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


61 


ARTICLE. 

Let  the  teacher  then  take  the  article  in  connection  with 
the  noun.  '  An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  a  noun,  to  point 
it  out,  and  show  how  far  its  signification  extends.  There  are 
two  articles,  a  or  an,  and  the.  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite 
article,  and  agrees  with  a  noun  in  the  singular  number  only. 
The  is  called  the  definite  article,  and  agrees  with  nouns,  either 
in  the  singular  or  plural  number.'  Let  him  continue  repeat- 
ing these  definitions,  whUe  the  following  examples  are  written 
on  the  black-board :  — 


A  man 
A  tree 
A  pen 
A  dog 
A  bush 
A  horse 
An  apple 
An  orange 
An  hour 
An  honor 
An  owl 
An  idea 


The  man 
The  tree 
The  pen 
The  dog 
The  bush 
The  horse 
The  apple 
The  orange 
The  hour 
TJie  honor 
The  owl 
The  idea 


T^e  men 
T'Ae  trees 
The  pens 
J'A«  doga 
The  bushes 
The  horses 
The  apples 
The  oranges 
The  hours 
The  honors 
The  owls 
The  ideas. 


Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


ADJECTIVE. 


Let  the  teacher  then  take  the  adjective  in  connection 
with  the  noun.  *An  adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun,  to 
describe,  qualify,  or  limit  it.  Most  adjectives  are  varied,  so 
as  to  express  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  the  positive,  com- 
parative, and  superlative.  The  positive  degree  expresses  the 
simple  quality  of  an  object ;  the  comparative  degree  increases 
or  lessens  it ;  and  the  superlative  degree  increases  or  lessens 
it  to  the  utmost.^  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  definitions, 
while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  ^e  black-board  ;— 
6 


63 


THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


Long  lesson 
Rich  man 
Soft  apple 
Poor  bat 
Safe  way 
Loud  noise 
Good  woman 
Bad  road 
Little  boy 
Pious  man 
Generous  man 


Longer  lesson 
Richer  man 
Softer  apple 
Poorer  hat 
Safer  way 
Louder  noise 
Better  woman 
Worse  road 
Zess  boy 
More  pzoM5  man 
Less  generous  man 


Otw  boy  received /orty  dollars  in 


Longest  lesson 
Richest  man 
Softest  apple 
Poorest  bat 
Safest  way 
Loudest  noise 
-Se«f  woman 
^rs;  road 
Xeas<  boy 
Most  pious  man 
Least  generous  man 
^ye  months. 


Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  eoc^  wore?  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


PEONOUN. 

Let  the  teacher  then  take  the  pronoun,  '  A  pronoun  is  a 
word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  repe- 
tition of  the  same  woi*d.  There  are  four  kinds  of  pi-onouns  ; 
the  personal,  relative,  interrogative,  and  adjective.  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  are  used  instead  of  persons,  and  invariably 
represent  the  person  of  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand. 
There  are  five  personal  pronouns,  I,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  it, 
with  their  variations  in  declension.'  Let  him  continue  repeat- 
ing these  definitions,  while  the  following  examples  are  written 
on  the  black-board:  — 

/love  him  and  you  ;  but  he  hates  me  and  her. 

You  saw  him  and  me  ;  but  /did  not  see  you  or  hitn. 

Thou  canst  speak  to  him  ;  but  he  will  not  speak  to  thee. 

He  says,  she  is  his  friend ;  and  she  says,  he  is  her  friend. 
Wq  urged  them  to  stop  with  us  ;  but  they  declined  our  invi- 
tation. 

My  knowledge  of  your  affairs  induces  me  to  say,  you  are 
wrong. 

They  hope  that  their  accounts  will  offset  yours  and  mine. 

Charles  lost  his  knife  ;  and  John  found  it,  and  returned  it. 

O  thou,  whose  name  alone  is  Jehovah !     Te  men  of  Israel ! 


ENGLISH  GEAMMAR.  63 

Example  showing  the  use  of  a  Pronoun. 

When  Washington  had  saved  Washington's  country,  Wash- 
ington  retired  to  Washington's  plantation  to  spend  the  remain- 
der of  Washington's  life  in  retirement. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  The  relative  pronoun  generally 
relates  to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  which  is  called 
the  antecedent.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
that,  and  sometimes  as,  when  it  follows  same  or  such.'  Let 
him  continue  repeating  this  in  the  hearing  of  his  pupils,  while 
the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

The  scholar  who  improves  his  time,  sets  a  good  example. 

They  who  seek  wisdom  will  find  her. 

The  man  whom  I  saw  yesterday,  is  dead. 

This  is  the  tree  which  produces  no  fruit. 

The  bird  which  sung  so  sweetly,  is  flown. 

He  that  acts  wisely,  deserves  praise. 

Modesty  is  a  quality  that  adorns  a  woman. 
.  vThis  is  the  man  whose  brother  is  dead. 
7    Send  him  such  books  as  will  please  him. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  their  verbs  have. 

No  language  is  complete,  whose  verbs  have  not  tenses. 

This  is  the  friend  whom  I  love. 

That  is  the  vice  which  I  hate. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  The  interrogative  pronouns  are 
used  in  asking  questions.  They  are  who,  which,  and  what' 
Let  him  continue  repeating  this  in  the  hearing  of  his  pupils, 
while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black' 
hoard:  — 

Who  are  you  ?  Whose  books  have  you  ? 

Whom  did  you  see  ?  Who  wrote  the  letter  ? 

What  is  your  name  ?  Which  is  the  best  way  ? 

What  induced  you  to  come  ?  With  whom  did  you  come  ? 

Which  color  is  the  strongest  ?  Whose  work  is  that  ? 

What  news  have  you  ?  To  whom  did  you  speak  ? 


6#  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  The  adjective  pronouns  are  of 
a  mixed  nature,  having  the  pi'operties  both  of  pronouns  and 
adjectives.  The  adjective  pronouns  are  divided  into  three 
classes  ;  the  distributive,  demonstrative,  and  indefinite.  The 
distributive  pronouns  are  those  which  denote  the  persons  or 
things  that  idake  up  a  number,  as  taken  separately  and  singly. 
The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  those  which  precisely  point 
out  the  subjects  to  which  they  relate.  The  indefinite  pro- 
nouns are  those  which  express  their  subjects  in  an  indefinite 
or  general  manner.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  defini- 
tions, and,  at  intervals,  make  his  pupils  repeat  them  after  him, 
while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board: 

Speak  to  each  boy,  to  every  girl,  to  either  sex,  or  to  neither 
sex. 

As  each  is  accountable,  let  each  speak  for  himself. 
Every  person,  in  every  condition  in  life,  should  do  right. 
Either  of  them  is  good  enough,  but  I  shall  accept  neither. 
Tliis  or  thai  man  is  right. 
This  is  right,  and  that  is  wrong. 
These  or  those  men  are  right. 
These  are  right,  and  those  are  wrong. 
Some  man  or  men ;  other  man  or  men ;  any  man  or  men ; 
such  man  or  men ;  same  man  or  men  ;  one  or  another  man ; 
all  or  both  men ;  all  time  or  times. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  ea^h  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


VERB. 


Let  the  teacher  then  say, '  A  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts 
or  affirms  something  of  persons  or  things.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  verbs ;  the  active,  passive,  and  neuter.  Verbs  are 
either  regular  or  irregular.  The  active  verb  expresses  an 
action  which  is  either  transitive  or  intransitive.  It  is  transi- 
tive, when  it  haa  an  olject  after  it,  either  expressed  or  implied. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  65 

It  is  intransitive,  when  it  has  no  object  after  it,  either  ex- 
pressed or  implied.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  defi- 
nitions, wliile  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the 
hlack-board :  — 

Men  teach  boys.  The  child  walks. 

Boys  train  dogs.  Susan  smiles. 

Dogs  chase  cats.  John  goes  to  school. 

Cats  catch  rats.  The  boy  runs  swiftly. 

Rats  gnaw  cheese.  The  sun  rises  and  sets. 

Cheese  breeds  worms.  The  moon  shines  brightly. 

Worms  eat  animals.  The  hivA  flies  away. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  'The  passive  verb  (sometimes 
called  receptive)  expresses  the  suffering  or  receiving  of  an 
action  or  influence,  and  asserts  that  the  nominative  case  is  the 
receiver.  The  passive  verb  is  formed  by  adding  the  perfect 
participle  to  the  auxiliary  he  or  am,  through  all  its  changes 
of  number,  person,  mode,  and  tense.'  Let  him  continue  re- 
peating these  definitions,  while  the  following  examples  are 
written  on  the  black-board:  — 

Boys  are  taught  by  men.  •  Cheese  is  gnawed  by  rats. 

Dogs  are  trained  by  boys.  Worms  are  bred  in  cheese. 

Cats  are  chased  by  dogs.  Animals  are  eaten  by  worms. 

Rats  are  killed  by  cats.  John  was  struck  by  Charles. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  l6t  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say, '  The  neuter  verb  expresses  neither 
action  nor  the  reception  of  an  action,  but  being,  or  a  state  of 
ieing.^  Let  him  continue  repeating  this  definition,  while  the 
following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

The  man  is  dead.  The  world  exists. 

He  was  once  alive.  The  book  lies  on  the  desk. 

The  warrior  sleeps  in  the  dust.  The  man  becomes  a  fool. 
He  reposes  in  the  grave.  The  mountain  stands. 

John  sits  still.         -  Man's  days  are  few. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
6* 


$6  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  To  verbs  belong  person,  7iuml>er, 
mode,  and  tense.  They  have  three  persons  ;  the  Jirst,  second, 
and  third;  —  and  two  numbers,  the  singular  aad plural;  —  the 
same  aa  their  agents  or  nominative  cases,  with  which  they 
agree.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  this,  while  the  following 
examples  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

I  love  them.  We  love  them.  John  whistles. 

You  love  them.  You  love  them.  Nancy  sings. 

He  loves  them.  They  love  them.        Lions  roar. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  Verbs  have  Jive  modes  ;  the  in- 
dicative, imperative, potential,  subjunctive,  and  infinitive.  The 
indicative  mood  simply  indicates  or  declares  a  thing.  The 
imperative  mode  is  used  in  commanding,  exhorting,  or  permit' 
ting.  The  potential  mode  implies  possibility,  liberty,  power, 
will,  or  obligation.  The  subjunctive  mode  expresses  an  ac- 
tion in  a  dovbtfuL,  conditional,  or  supposable  manner.  The 
infinitive  mode  expresses  an  action  in  a  general  and  unlimited 
manner,  without  any  distinction  of  number  or  person^  Let 
him  continue  repeating  these  definitions,  and,  at  intervals, 
make  his  pupils  repeat  them  after  him,  while  the  following 
examples  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

The  man  works;  the  boy  plays;  the  dog  barks;  the  bell  toUs. 
Scholars  ham  ;  girls  dance  ;  birds  sing ;  the  ship  sails. 
Depart  thou  ;  mind  ye  ;  go  in  peace. 
Come  here ;  hold  up  your  head ;  speak  out,  and  tell  the 
truth. 

I  may  obey,  I  can  obey,  I  must  obey,  the  teacher. 

I  might,  could,  should,  or  would,  obey  the  teacher. 

If  he  go,  acquire  riches,  and  have  money ;  if  I  Je  right. 

If  he  were  here ;  were  he  good  ;  unless  he  repent,  &c. 

Cease  to  do  evil ;  we  have  talents  to  improve  ;  let  him  go. 

She  is  eager  to  learn  ;  the  question  is  difficult  to  be  solved. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


*  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  67 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  *  Verbs  have  six  tenses  ;  the  joresenf, 
imperfect,  perfect,  pluperfect,  first  and  second  future.  The 
present  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as  now  taking 
place.  The  imperfect  tense  represents  what  took  pFace  in  time 
past,  however  distant.  The  perfect  tense  not  only  refers  to 
what  is  past,  but  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time. 
The  pluperfect  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  which  took 
place  before  some  other  past  time  mentioned.  The  first  future 
tense  represents  what  will  take  place  hereafter.  The  second 
fvtiure  tense  represents  what  will  have  taken  place,  at  or  before 
some  future  time  mentioned.'  Let  him  continue  repeating 
these  definitions,  and,  at  intervals,  make  his  pupils  repeat 
them  after  him,  while  the  following  examples  are  written  on 
the  black-board:  — 

John  reads  well.  Does  he  read  well  ? 

James  spoke  welL  Does  he  speak  well  ? 

Susan  has  recited.  Has  she  recited'? 

Nancy  had  gone  home.  Had  she  gone  home  ? 

I  shall  see  them  again.  Shall  I  see  them  again  ? 

We  shall  have  dined &t one  o'clock.   Shall  we  have  dined?  &c. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  Subject  fully.  Let  him  here  ex- 
plain the  u^e  and  nature  of  auxiliary  verbs,  and  also  the  dif- 
ference between  regular  and  irregular  verbs. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  The  participle  is  a  certain  form 
of  the  verb,  and  has  the  nature  of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  and  a 
noun.  There  are  three  kinds  of  participles  ;  the  present,  per- 
fect, and  compound  perfect.'  Let  him  continue  repeating 
this,  while  the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black- 
board :  — 

Loving,  Loved,  Having  loved ; 
Being  loved,  Loved,  Having  been  loved ; 
Having  been  loving. 
Being  informed  of  the  dangers  surrounding  him,  he  re- 
turned home. 

Having  sought  the  truth  with  a  loving  heart,  he  prized  it 
highly. 

Having  been  deceived,  he  lost  all  confidence  in  others. 
Despised  and  rejected  by  men,  he  sought  retirement. 


68  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


ADVEKB. 


Let  the  teacher  then  say,  *  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to 
modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  participle,  adjective,  preposition^ 
or  another  adverb'  Let  him  continue  repeating  this,  while 
the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board : — 

The  bird  sings  sweetly.     Henry  improves  rapidly. 

Singing  sweetly  and  dancing  elegantly,  she  is  admired. 

James  is  very  attentive.     John  is  quite  busy. 

The  ship  sailed  nearly  round  the  globe. 

The  boys  write  too  fast.     Some  read  very  well. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriMe 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


PBEPOSmON. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  A  preposition  is  a  word  wliich 
serves  to  connect  words  with  one  another,  and  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  them.  Prepositions  generally  show  the  relation 
between  some  preceding  verb,  participle,  or  adjective,  and  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  they  govern  in  the  objective  case.' 
Let  him  continue  repeating  these  definitions,  while  the  follow- 
ing examples  are  written  on  the  black-board : — 

John  came  from  New  York  to  Boston,  on  the  rail-road,  in 
five  hours. 

With  his  friends,  in  a  carriage  drawn  by  four  horses,  he  went 
to  Salem  over  the  turnpike  through  Lynn. 

The  dog  ran  about  the  yard,  around  the  house,  over  the 
fence,  across  the  street,  into  the  stable  o/"his  master. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


ENGLISH  GBAMHEB. 


CONJUWCTION. 


Let  the  teacher  then  say,  '  A  conjunction  is  a  word  chiefly 
used  to  connect  sentences,  or  members  of  a  sentence.  Some- 
times it  connects  only  words.  There  are  two  kinds  of  con- 
junctions, the  copulative  and  the  disjunctive.  The  copulative 
conjunction  connects  and  continues  the  sense  ;  but  the  disjunc- 
tive conjunction  expresses  opposition  of  meaning  in  difterent 
degrees.'  Let  him  continue  repeating  these  definitions,  while 
the  following  examples  are  written  on  the  black-board :  — 

Nancy  reads  well,  and  is  a  good  scholar.  , 

I  will  go,  if  yon  accompany  me. 

You  are  happy,  because  you  are  good. 

Two,  and  three,  and  four,  make  nine. 

He  denied  that  he  had  made  the  assertion. 

They  came  with  her,  but  returned  without  her. 

He  is  older  than  she ;  and  he  should  have  known  better. 

You  must  do  it  now,  or  all  will  be  lost. 

Though  he  chide  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Italics,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  explain  the  subject  fully. 


INTEBJECTION. 

Let  the  teacher  then  say,  *  An  interjection  is  a  word  used 
to  express  the  passion  or  emotion  of  the  speaker  or  writer.' 
Let  him  continue  repeating  this,  while  the  following  examples 
are  written  on  the  Uack-board: — 

Oh  I  wretched  state  !  O  death !  where  is  thy  sting  ? 

Alas  !  I  fear  for  life.  Hush  !  you  will  wake  your  father. 

Ah  !  I  am  ruined.  Me  !  cousin  Percy. 

Then,  with  the  pointer,  let  him  direct  the  attention  of  his 
pupils  to  each  word  printed  in  Holies,  ask  the  appropriate 
questions,  and  eaeplain  the  subject  fully. 


70  THE   BLACK-BOABD. 


PUNCTUATION 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  or  printed 
composition  into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by  the  use 
of  points  or  stops. 

Note.  —  As  the  rules  for  punctuation  are  founded  on  the 
grammatical  construction  of  sentences,  their  application  pre- 
supposes, on  the  part  of  the  scholar,  a  knowledge  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  phrases,  such  as  adjunct  or  imperfect  phrases, 
incidental  and  appendant  phrases  ;  of  members  and  clauses ; 
and  also  of  simple,  compound,  and  complex  sentences.  For  an 
explanation  of  these,  see  Goldsbury's  Grammar,  page  86,  and 
Sequel  to  the  Grammar,  page  65. 

THE    COMMA, 

The  comma  [,]  represents  the  shortest  pause  in  reading, 
and  the  smallest  division  in  written  or  printed  composition. 

Rule  1.  A  short  simple  sentence  should  not  be  separated 
by  a  comma ;  as, '  God  is  love.'  '  The  sky  is  blue.'  '  The  sea 
is  green.'  *  The  lion  is  bold.*  '  This  pleases  me.'  '  That 
pleases  you.'  '  Money  is  the  root  of  all  evil.'  '  Truth  is  the 
basis  of  every  virtue.'     '  Honesty  is  the  best  policy.' 

Remark.  —  This  rule  needs  no  further  illustration.  There 
are  a  few  exceptions  to  it ;  as,  *  Boys,  come  in.'  *  Take  your 
seats,  girls.'  *My  son,  give  me  thy  heart.'  'Never,  no, 
never,  will  I  submit.' 

Rule  2.  "When  a  simple  sentence  is  long,  and  the  nomina- 
tive is  accompanied  with  an  inseparable  adjunct  of  import- 
ance, it  may  admit  a  comma  immediately  before  the  verb  ;  as, 
*  The  good  taste  of  the  present  age,  is  in  favor  of  learning.' 

Exercises  for  the  JBlack-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  The  great  end  of  all 
human  industry  is  the  attainment  of  happiness.'  '  The  inter- 
mixture of  evil  in  human  society  serves  to  exercise  the  no- 
blest virtues  of  the  human  soul.'  '  To  be  diligently  employed 
in  the  performance  of  real  duties  is  honorable.'  '  To  endeavor 
to  work  upon  the  vulgar  with  fine  sense  is  like  attempting  to 


PUNCTUATION.  71 

hew  blocks  with  a  razor.'  '  One  of  the  noblest  of  the  Chris- 
tian virtues  is  to  love  our  enemies.'  '  To  be  totally  indifferent 
to  praise  or  censure  is  a  real  defect  in  character.'  '  Their 
being  singled  out  for  excuse  on  the  score  of  ignoi'ance  would 
imply  the  withholding  forgiveness  from  others  who  were 
better  informed.' 

Rule  3.  When  the  connection  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
simple  sentence,  is  interrupted  by  an  incidental  phrase  of  im- 
portance, a  comma  must  be  placed  both  before  and  after  the 
phrase  ;  as,  '  Truth,  when  reduced  to  practice,  easily  becomes 
subject  to  caprice  and  passion.' 

Exercises  for  the  Blaclc-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following  :  '  The  king  approving 
the  plan  put  it  into  execution.'  '  The  travellers  set  out  early 
and  before  the  close  of  the  day  arrived  at  the  destined  place.' 
'  The  work  is  in  many  respects  very  imperfect.'  '  The  pious 
man  even  when  persecuted  is  a  happy  man.'  '  The  pi'ince 
without  further  trouble  succeeded.'  '  Trials  in  this  stage  of 
our  being  are  the  lot  of  man.'  '  Benevolence  all  will  admit 
is  a  godlike  virtue.'  '  Some  by  being  too  artful  forfeit  the 
reputation  of  probity :  others  by  being  too  open  are  thought 
to  fail  in  prudence.' 

Rule  4.  All  incidental  toords  and  phrases,  coming  between 
a  nominative  case  and  its  verb,  and  not  immediately  depend- 
ing upon  the  nominative,  require  a  comma  both  before  and 
after  them ;  as,  '  Vices,  like  shadows,  towards  the  evening  of 
life,  grow  great  and  monstrous.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 

Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Benjamin  West  once 
President  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  London  a  native  of  Spring- 
field Pennsylvania  was  an  American  by  birth.'  '  Temperance 
says  a  celebrated  writer  by  fortifying  the  mind  and  body  leads 
to  happiness.'  '  Intemperance  says  the  same  writer  by  ener- 
vating them  ends  generally  in  misery.'  '  The  teacher  being 
asked  among  other  questions  what  studies  he  thought  most  im- 
portant for  young  scholars  answered.'  '  F'ine  writing  according 
to  Addison  who  was  himself  a  fine  writer  consists  in  the  ex- 
pression of  natural  sentiments.' 


m 


f2  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule  5.  All  incidental  words  and  phrases,  like  the  follow- 
ing, above  all,  again,  on  the  contrary,  vay,  in  the  next  place,  in 
short,  once  more,  first,  secondly,  formerly,  lastly,  hence,  &c., 
are  generally  separated  from  the  sentence  by  a  comma. 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  In  general  his  work 
is  superior  to  mine.'  '  I  like  above  all  things  a  good  scholar.' 
'  Indeed  this  is  most  true.'  '  Nay  it  could  not  be  otherwise.' 
*  At  least  so  it  seems  to  me.'  '  At  length  they  took  pity  oa 
him.'  '  I  proceed  secondly  to  point  out  the  difference.'  *  This 
is  perhaps  one  of  them.'  '  He  was  at  last  convinced  of  his 
error.'  '  Besides  it  may  be  advantageous  to  you.'  *  Unfor- 
tunately he  thinks  too  highly  of  himself.'  '  Nay  on  the  con- 
trary he  is  very  humble.'  '  Here  every  thing  is  in  stir  and 
fluctuation.'     '  There  all  is  serene  and  orderly.' 

Rule  6.  All  words  and  phrases,  repeated  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  must  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  by 
a  comma ;  as, '  Never,  no,  never,  will  just  Heaven  accuse.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Turn  ye  turn  ye.'  *  I 
•will  overturn  overturn  overturn.'  '  "Woe  woe  woe  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  earth.'  '  Comfort  ye  comfort  ye  my  people.' 
'  I  shall  never  submit  —  never  never  never.'  '  Lend  lend 
your  wings.'     *  My  prize  my  beauteous  prize  I  will  resign.' 

Rule  7.   All  words  and  phrases,  when  not  standing  in  regu- 
lar prosaic  order,  or  when  placed  in  opposition  to  each  other, 
require  commas  after  each  of  them  ;  as, 
'  Then  lambs,  with  wolves,  shall  graze  the  verdant  mead ; 

And  boys,  in  flowery  bands,  the  tiger  lead.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following:  'Vain  frivolous  and 
irascible  with  little  sense  and  with  no  principle  he  was  almost 
universally  despised.'  '  Good  men  in  this  frail  imperfect  state 
are  often  found  not  only  in  union  with  but  in  opposition  to  the 
views  and  conduct  of  one  another.' 

*  Though  deep  yet  clear ;  though  gentle  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong  without  rage ;  without  o'erflowing  full.' 


PUNCTUATION.  73 

*  Contrasted  faults  through  all  their  manners  reign  ; 
Though  poor  luxurious  ;  though  submissive  vain  ; 
Though  grave  yet  trifling ;  zealous  yet  untrue ; 
And  even  in  penance  planning  sins  anew.' 

*  Religion  dwells  not  in  the  tongue  but  in  the  heart.'  *  Even- 
ing is  the  time  to  review  not  only  our  blessings  but  our  actions/ 

Rule  8.  An  incidental  word  or  phrase,  introduced  to  ex- 
plain another  word  or  phrase,  must  liave  a  comma  both  before 
and  after  it ;  as,  '  John,  the  brother  of  James,  is  dead.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  ptmctuate  the  following :  '  Paul  the  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles  was  eminent  for  his  zeal  and  knowledge.'  '  The 
island  of  Mona  now  Anglesea  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Dru- 
ids.' '  Homer  the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity  is  said  to  have 
been  blind.'  *  Augustus  the  Roman  emperor  was  a  patron  of 
the  fine  arts.'  '  Constantinople  the  capital  of  Turkey  is  finely" 
situated  on  the  Bosphorus.'  '  Cicero  was  oppressed  by  a  new 
affliction  the  death  of  his  beloved  Tullia.'  'The  butterfly 
cliild  of  the  summer  flutters  in  the  sun.' 

Rule  9.  When  several  words  of  any  class  succeed  each 
other,  a  comma  should  be  placed  after  each  ;  as,  '  William, 
Henry,  James,  and  Seth,  are  good  scholars.'  '  The  father, 
the  mother,  and  the  son,  have  gone  down  to  the  grave.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctimte  the  following :   '  In  the  least  insect 
there  are  muscles  nerves  joints  veins  arteries  and   blood.* 

*  The  most  yinocent  pleasures  are  the  sweetest  the  most  ra- 
tional the  most  affecting  and  the  jnost  desirable.'  '  We  may 
advise  exhort  comfort  and  entreat  the  sinner.'  *  A  youth  fear- 
ing serving  and  loving  God  will  be  trusted  relied  upon  and 
esteemed.'  'You  should  seek  after  knowledge  steadily  pa- 
tiently and  perseveringly.'  '  The  husband  wife  and  children 
suffered  extremely.'  '  They  took  away  their  furniture  clothes 
and  stock  in  trade.'  '  He  is  alternately  supported  by  his  father 
his  uncle  and  his  elder  brother,'  'Power  and  wisdom  and 
goodness  shine  forth  in  the  works  of  creation.'  '  Reading 
writing  English  grammar  geography  and  arithmetic  are  the 

7 


74  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

most  essential  branches  of  common  school  education.'     '  Food 
clothing  and  credit  are  the  rewards  of  industry.' 

Rule  10,  Two  or  more  adjectives,  belonging  to  the  same 
noun,  should  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  '  David  was  a 
brave,  wise,  and  pious  man.'  But  two  adjectives,  immediately 
connected  by  a  conjunction,  should  not  be  separated  by  a  com- 
ma ;  as,  '  Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  simple  and  sincere,  uniform 
and  consistent.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  *A  woman  gentle  sen- 
sible  well-educated  and  religious.'  '  Plain  honest  truth  wants 
no  artificial  covering.'  '  Conscious  guilt  renders  us  mean- 
spirited  timorous  and  base.'  '  The  apprentice  is  a  very  sharp 
active  youth.'  'John  is  a  tall  muscular  man.'  'A  hardy 
honest  peasantry  are  the  glory  of  an  agricultural  country.' 
'Their  indefatigable  systematic  attention  to  business  claims 
our  admiration  and  praise.' 

Rule  11.  When  a  verb,  or  any  important  word  necessary 
to  the  full  meaning  of  a  sentence,  is  omitted,  a  comma  may 
supply  its  place ;  as,  '  From  law  arises  security  ;  from  security, 
curiosity ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge.'  But,  in  other  instances, 
especially  where  it  would  divide  the  sentence  too  much,  it  is 
better  to  omit  the  comma ;  as,  '  No  station  is  so  high,  no  power 
so  great,  no  character  so  unblemished,  as  to  exempt  men  from 
the  attacks  of  rashness,  malice,  and  envy.' 

Exercises  for  tJie  Black-board. 
Write,  and  punctuate  when  necessary,  the  following :  *  Read- 
ing makes  a  full  man  ;  confidence  a  ready  man  ;  and  writing 
an  exact  man.'  '  Passion  overcame  shame ;  boldness  fear  ;  and 
madness  reason.'  *  Chaucer  most  frequently  describes  things  as 
they  are ;  Spenser  as  he  wished  them  to  be  ;  Shakspeare  as  they 
would  be ;  and  Milton  as  they  ought  to  be.'  '  Semirarais  built 
Babylon  ;  Dido  Carthage  ;  and  Romulus  Rome.'  *  The  Gre- 
cians excel  in  precepts ;  the  Romans  in  examples.'  '  To 
mourn  without  measure  is  folly  ;  not  to  mourn  at  all  insensi- 
bility.' '  Strength  and  energy  distinguish  the  characters  of 
Homer  and  Michael  Angelo ;  beauty  and  propriety  those  of 
Virgil  and  Raphael.'     '  The  minor  longs  to  be  of  age,  then  to 


PUNCTUATION.  75 

be  a  man  of  business,  then  to  make  up  an  estate,  then  to 
arrive  at  honors,  then  to  retire.' 

Rule  12.  When  two  words  of  the  same  sort,  are  connected 
by  a  conjunction  expressed,  they  must  not  be  separated ;  as, 

*  Study  expands  and  elevates  the  mind.'  When  words  are 
connected  in  pairs,  the  pairs  only  should  be  separated ;  as, 
'  There  is  a  natural  difference  between  merit  and  demerit, 
virtue  and  vice,  wisdom  and  folly.* 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write,  and  punctuate  when  necessary,  the  following :  '  Homer 
and  Virgil  were  excellent  poets.'  *  Wise  and  good  men  are  gen- 
erally respected.'  '  The  study  of  history  informs  and  enlarges 
the  mind.'  *  Admired  and  applauded  he  became  vain.'  '  Cicero 
spoke  forcibly  and  fluently.'  *  Is  it  fancy  or  fact  ? '  '  Hope 
and  fear  pleasure  and  pain  diversify  our  lives.'  '  A  wise  man 
observes  and  listens  reads  and  reflects.'  '  Friendship  is  cool 
and  deliberate  sedate  and  temperate   steady  and   discreet.' 

*  Interest  and  ambition  honor  and  shame  friendship  and  enmity 
gratitude  and  revenge  are  the  prime  movers  in  public  trans- 
actions.' '  The  avaricious  man  contrives  or  labors  praises  or 
depreciates  misleads  or  overreaches  just  as  his  present  interest 
dictates.' 

Rule  13.  The  vocative  or  independent  case,  the  case  abso- 
lute, and  the  infinitive  mode  absolute,  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  by  a  comma ;  as,  ' J/y  son,  give  me 
thy  heart.'  ^Ifis  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate.' 
^To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault.' 

Exercises  for  the  BlacJc-hoard. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  I  thank  you  madam.' 
'  I  am  obliged  to  you  ladies.'  '  I  remain  sir  your  obedient 
servant.'  '  Continue  my  dear  James  to  make  virtue  your 
principal  study.'  i  Yours  is  the  time  my  young  friends  for 
acquiring  virtuous  habits.'  '  Be  seated  gentlemen.'  '  Acquire 
my  children  the  habit  of  doing  every  thing  well.'  'John 
come  here.'  '  Virtue  triumphing  man  may  rejoice.'  '  Peace 
of  mind  being  secured  we  may  smile  at  misfortunes.'  '  Charles 
having  been  deprived  of  the  help  of  his  tutors  his  studies  be- 
came totally  neglected.'    <  Virtue  abandoned  and  conscience 


76  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

reproaching  us  we  become  terrified  with  imaginary  evils.' 

*  To  say  the  least  they  have  betrayed  great  want  of  prudence.' 

*  To  enjoy  present  pleasure  he  sacrificed  his  future  ease  and 
reputation.'  '  To  prevent  further  altercation  I  submit  to  the 
terms  proposed.' 

Rule  14.  Comparative  or  complex  sentences,  whose  mem- 
bers are  short,  and  sentences  connected  by  relative  pronouns, 
the  meaning  of  whose  antecedents  is  limited  to  a  particular 
sense,  should  not  be  separated  by  a  comma ;  as,  '  Wisdom  is 
better  than  riches.'  '  Give  it  to  the  man  whom  you  most 
esteem.'  But  when  the  complex  sentence  is  long,  or  when 
the  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  used  in  a  general  sense,  a 
comma  should  be  placed  before  the  than,  in  the  one  instance, 
and  before  the  relative,  in  the  other  ;  as,  '  Better  is  a  dinner 
of  herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred  with  it.' 

*  There  is  no  charm  in  the  female  sex,  which  can  supply  the 
place  of  virtue.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write,  and  punctuate  when  necessary,  the  following :  '■  He 
acted  more  from  caprice  than  reason.'  '  What  is  sweeter  than 
honey  stronger  than  a  lion  or  hotter  than  fire  ? '  '  Expect  no 
more  from  the  world  than  it  is  able  to  afford  you.'  '  The  friend- 
ships of  the  world  can  subsist  no  longer  than  interest  cements 
them.'  '  Nothing  is  more  opposed  to  true  enjoyment  than  indo- 
lence.' '  The  more  a  man  speaks  of  himself  the  less  he  likes  to 
hear  another  spoken  of.'  '  As  virtue  is  its  own  reward  so  vice  is 
its  own  punishment.'  '  As  the  heart  panteth  after  the  Avater- 
brooks  so  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee.'  '  Self-denial  is  the 
sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make.'  '  The  rewards  which  were 
promised  shall  be  given.'  '  There  are  Avitnesses  of  the  fact 
which  I  have  mentioned.'  'The  man  who  is  faithfully  at- 
tached to  religion  may  be  relied  on  with  confidence.'  '  Be- 
hold the  emblem  of  thy  state  in  flowers  which  bloom  and  die.' 

*  No  man  ever  attained  lasting  fame  who  did  not  contradict 
the  prejudices  of  popular  applause.'  '  No  man  continues  long 
to  respect  his  benefactors  who  allows  himself  freely  to  talk  of 
their  faults.' 

Note. — The  foregoing  rules  and  exercises  are  sufficient, 
perhaps,  to  suggest  to  the  learner,  in  ordinary  cases,  the  proper 
place  for  inserting  the  comma.    The  two  following  remarks^ 


PUNCTUATION.  77 

however,  accompanied  by  examples  and  exercises,  may  throw 
some  further  light  upon  the  subject. 

Remark  1.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  parts,  one  de- 
pending on  the  other  for  sense,  a  comma  should  be  placed 
between  them ;  as,  '  People  are  unpolite,  because  they  are  ig- 
norant.' '  If  you  would  be  revenged  on  your  enemies,  let  your 
life  be  blameless.' 

Remark  2.  Consecutive  phrases  and  clauses,  similarly  con- 
structed in  the  same  sentence,  should  be  separated  from  each 
other  by  commas  ;  as,  '  No  station  is  so  high,  no  power  so 
great,  no  character  so  unblemished,  as  to  exempt  men  from 
the  attacks  of  malice  or  envy.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  By  the  faults  of  others 
wise  men  correct  their  own.'  '  Neither  flatter  yourselves  nor 
permit  others  to  flatter  you.'  '  Shame  being  lost  all  virtue  is 
lost.'  '  If  we  would  die  well  we  must  live  well.'  '  While  the 
bridegroom  tarried  they  all  slumbered  and  slept.'  '  The  good 
which  men  do  is  not  lost  though  often  disregarded.'  '  Be- 
cause they  are  regular  the  pleasures  of  the  temperate  man  are 
durable.'  '  Unless  it  blossom  in  the  spring  the  tree  will  not 
bear  fruit  in  autumn.'  '  To  be  wise  in  our  own  eyes  to  be  wise 
in  the  opinion  of  the  world  and  to  be  wise  in  the  sight  of  our 
Creator  seldom  coincide.'  'Human  society  requires  distinc- 
tions of  property  diversity  of  conditions  subordination  of  ranks 
and  a  multiplicity  of  occupations.'  '  Friendship  eases  and 
unloads  the  mind  clears  and  improves  the  understanding  ani- 
mates virtue  and  good  resolutions  and  finds  employment  for 
our  most  vacant  hours.'  '  The  astonishing  multiplicity  of 
created  beings  the  wonderful  laws  of  nature  the  beautiful  ar- 
rangement of  the  heavenly  bodies  the  elegance  of  the  vegeta- 
ble world  the  operations  of  animal  life  and  the  amazing  har- 
mony of  the  whole  creation  loudly  proclaim  the  wisdom  of 
the  Deity.' 


THE   SEMICOLON. 


The  semicolon  [  ;  ]  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, somewhat  less  closely  connected  than  those  which  are 
separated  by  a  comma. 

7* 


78  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule  1.  When  the  preceding  member  of  the  sentence  does 
not  of  itself  give  complete  sense,  but  depends  on  the  following 
clause,  and  sometimes  when  the  sense  of  that  member  would 
be  complete  without  the  concluding  one,  the  semicolon  is  used ; 
as,  *  The  wise  man  is  happy,  when  he  gains  his  own  approba- 
tion ;  the  fool,  when  he  gains  the  applause  of  those  around 
him.'  ~ 

Mxercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Do  not  think  yourself 
perfect  for  imperfection  is  natural  to  humanity.'  '  Geniua 
breaks  from  the  fetters  of  criticism  but  its  wanderings  are 
sanctioned  by  its  majesty  and  wisdom.'  '  Modesty  is  one  of 
the  chief  ornaments  of  youth  and  it  has  ever  been  esteemed 
a  presage  of  rising  merit.'  '  Straws  swim  on  the  surface  but 
pearls  lie  at  the  bottom.'  '  This  is  not  what  religion  requires 
nor  does  it  enjoin  any  such  observance.'  '  Bryant's  poems 
are  beautifully  composed  and  I  have  read  them  with  much 
pleasure.' 

Rule  2.  When  an  example  is  introduced  to  illustrate  a 
rule  or  proposition,  the  semicolon  may  be  used  before  the  con- 
junction as :  thus,  '  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case ;  as, 
She  gave  the  book  to  him.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  A  noun  is  the  name  of 
some  person  or  thing  as,  man.'  '  Adjectives  qualify  nouns  as, 
good  man.'  '  Pronouns  are  used  instead  of  nouns  as,  he  did 
it.'  '  A  verb  asserts  or  affirms  something  as,  the  bell  toils.' 
'  The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number  and  person 
as,  thou  art  the  man.' 

Remark. — Short  sentences  slightly  connected,  and  a  series 
of  clauses  having  a  common  difference,  are  frequently  sepa- 
rated by  semicolons;  as,  'Every  thing  grows  old;  every 
thing  passes  away ;  every  thing  disappears.'  '  Philosophers 
assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ;  that  she 
has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge  will 
always  be  progressive ;  and  that  all  future  generations  vfiW 
continue  to  make  discoveries,  of  which  we  have  not  the 
slightest  idea.' 


PUNCTUATION.  79 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 

Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  The  epic  poem  recites 
the  exploits  of  a  hero  tragedy  represents  a  disastrous  event 
comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  foUies  of  mankind  pastoral 
poetry  describes  rural  life  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emo- 
tions of  the  heart.'  '  The  pride  of  wealth  is  contemptible  the 
pride  of  learning  is  pitiable  the  pride  of  dignity  is  ridiculous 
and  the  pride  of  bigotry  is  insupportable.'  '  The  world  is  stiU 
renewed  with  fresh  life  and  beauty  with  a  constant  succession 
of  trees  and  plants  with  a  new  race  of  animals  with  a  new 
generation  of  men.' 

'  But  who  the  melodies  of  morn  can  tell  ?  — 

The  wild  brook,  babbling  down  the  mountain's  side 

The  lowing  herd  the  sheepfold's  simple  bell 

The  pipe  of  early  shepherd,  dim  descried 

In  the  lone  vaUey  echoing  far  and  wide, 

The  clamorous  horn  along  the  cliffs  above 

The  hollow  murmur  of  the  ocean  tide 

The  hum  of  bees  the  linnet's  lay  of  love 
And  the  full  choir  that  wakes  the  universal  grove.* 


THE   COLON. 

The  colon  [ :  ]  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more 
parts  less  connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  semi- 
colon, but  not  so  independent  as  separate,  distinct  sentences. 

Rule  1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  it- 
self, but  followed  by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  farther 
illustration  of  the  subject,  the  colon  may  be  properly  employed  ; 
as,  '  Nature  felt  her  inability  to  extricate  herself  from  the  con- 
sequences of  guilt :  the  gospel  revealed  the  plan  of  divine 
interposition  and  aid.' 

Exercises  for  the  Bla^k-board. 

Write  and  pwictuate  the  following :  '  Study  to  acquire  the 

habit  of  thinking  no  study  is  more  important.'     '  Endeavor  to 

excel  much  may  be  accomphshed  by  perseverance.'     '  There 

is  no  mortal  truly  wise  and  restless  at  the  same  time  wisdom 


80  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

is  the  repose  of  the  mind.'  *  Virtue  is  too  lovely  and  useful  to 
be  immured  in  a  cell  the  world  is  the  sphere  of  her  action.' 
'  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues  an  enemy  inflames  his 
crimes.'  '  Harbor  no  malice  in  thy  heart  it  will  be  a  viper  in 
thy  bosom.'  '  Do  not  insult  a  poor  man  his  miseries  entitle 
him  to  pity.'  '  Do  not  despise  human  life  it  is  the  gift  of 
God.'  '  Be  upon  thy  guard  against  flattery  it  is  an  insidious 
poison.' 

Rule  2.  When  a  semicolon  has  preceded,  or  more  than 
one,  and  a  still  greater  pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark 
the  connecting  or  concluding  sentiment,  the  colon  should  be 
applied ;  as,  '  A  Divine  Legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from 
heaven ;  an  Almighty  Grovernor,  stretching  forth  his  arm  to 
punish  or  reward;  informing  us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared 
for  the  righteous  hereafter,  and  of  indignation  and  wrath 
awaiting  the  wicked :  these  are  considerations  which  overawe 
the  world,  which  support  integrity,  and  check  guUt.' 

Exercises  for  the  Mack-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following  :  '  By  doing  our  duty  to 
God  and  man  by  acquiring  an  humble  trust  in  the  mercy 
and  favor  of  God  by  cultivating  our  minds,  and  properly  em- 
ploying our  time  and  thoughts  by  correcting  all  our  unreason- 
able expectations,  and  in  the  midst  of  worldly  business,  habit- 
uating ourselves  to  calm  retreat  and  serious  recollection  by 
such  means  as  these,  it  may  be  hoped,  that,  through  the  Di- 
vine blessing,  our  days  shall  flow  in  a  stream  as  unruffled  aa 
the  human  state  admits.' 

*  Oh  !  how  canst  thou  renounce  the  boundless  store 
Of  charms  that  Nature  to  her  votary  yields ! 
The  warbling  woodlands,  the  resounding  shore, 
The  pomp  of  groves,  the  garniture  of  fields 
All  that  the  genial  ray  of  morning  gilds. 
And  all  that  echoes  to  the  song  of  even 
All  that  the  mountain's  sheltering  bosom  shields. 
And  all  the  dread  magnificence  of  heaven 
Oh !  how  canst  thou  renounce  and  hope  to  be  forgiven  ! ' 
Remark. — Dr.  Webster  seems  to  be  opposed  to  the  use  of 
the  colon.     He  says,  '  The  colon  is  of  little  use ;  the  diflfer- 
ence  between  the  colon  and  semicolon  is  so  small,  that  the  two 
pauses  are  frequently  confounded,  as  may  be  seen  in  our  pres- 


PtJNCTUAXION.  81 

ent  version  of  the  Proverbs.  It  is  said  that  a  colon  should 
be  placed  before  a  quotation ;  but  I  consider  the  use  of  the 
semicolon  preferable.  I  conceive  the  colon  might  be  rejected 
without  injury  to  the  perspicuity  of  sentences,  and  punctua- 
tion very  much  simplified  by  substituting  the  semicolon  and 
the  full  point.' 


THE   PERIOD. 

The  period  [ .  ]  serves  to  indicate  the  end  of  a  sentence 
which  is  assertive  in  its  nature,  and  independent  of  any 
following  sentence. 

Rule  1.  When  a  sentence  is  complete,  and  so  independent 
as  not  to  be  connected  with  the  one  wliich  follows  it,  a  period 
should  be  inserted  at  its  close ;  as,  '  Fear  God.'  '  Honor  the 
patriot.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Truth  is  the  basis  of 
every  virtue  It  is  the  voice  of  reason  Let  its  precepts  be 
religiously  obeyed  Never  transgress  its  limits  Every  devia- 
tion from  truth  is  criminal  Abhor  a  falsehood  Let  your 
words  be  ingenuous  Sincerity  possesses  the  most  powerful 
charm  It  acquires  the  veneration  of  mankind  Its  path  is 
security  and  peace    It  is  acceptable  to  God.' 

Rule  2.  The  period  should  follow  every  abbreviated  word ; 
as, '  Viz.,  Mass.,  Col.,  Va.,  Mr.,  U.  S.  A.,  Jos.' 

Exercises  for  the  BlacJc-board. 
Write  andpunctuate  the  following :  '  The  accident  happened 
at  half  past  nine,  A  M ;  and  the  person  died  at  ten  o'clock, 
P  M.'  '  The  Capt ,  Col ,  and  Gen  ,  were  there.'  '  The  degrees 
of  A  B ,  AM,  M  D  ,  LL  B  ,  D  D  ,  and  LL  D  ,  were 
conferred  without  much  discrimination.'  '  Geo  ,  Wm  ,  Chas  , 
Eben  ,  Josh  ,  Tim  ,  and  Jas  ,  spoke  at  the  exhibition.'  '  I 
have  travelled  through  the  States  of  Mass  ,  Me  ,  Vt ,  N  H  , 
NY,  and  S  C  *  The  Gov  ,  Lieut  Gov  ,  the  U  S  A  offi- 
cers, and  many  members  of  the  Sen  and  House  of  Rep  ,  were 
in  the  procession.' 


bZ  •      ;  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

THE    INTERROGATION. 

The  note  of  interrogation  [  ?  ]  shows,  that  a  question  is 
asked  by  the  words  to  which  it  is  affixed ;  as,  '  How  old  are 
you?' 

Remark.  The  interrogative  mark  should  not  be  used,  when 
the  expression  denoting  inquiry  is  put  in  any  other  form  than 
that  of  a  direct  question ;  as, '  He  asked  me,  why  I  wept' 

Exercises  for  the  Blach-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  What  is  civilization 
Where  is  it  What  does  it  consist  in  By  what  is  it  excluded 
Where  does  it  commence  Where  does  it  end  By  what  sign 
is  it  known  How  is  it  defined  In  short,  what  does  it  mean ' 
'  What  is  it  Why  an  adjective  What  belong  to  adjectives 
Can  you  vary  it  Is  it  regularly  or  irregularly  varied  What 
degree  is  it  Why  positive,  comparative,  or  superlative  With 
what  does  it  agree  and  what  is  the  rule  '  '  I  met  a  man  who 
inquired  the  way  to  Boston  He  wanted  to  know  how  many 
roads  there  were  leading  to  the  city  and  which  was  the  near- 
est way ' 


THE    EXCLAMATION. 

The  note  of  exclamation  [  !  j  expresses  admiration,  wonder, 
joy,  grief,  &c.,  and  is  also  used  after  invocations  and  addresses ; 
as,  '  My  friend  !  this  conduct  amazes  me  ! '  *  Oh !  how  happy 
we  shall  be  ! ' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 
Write  and  puncture  the  following :  '  Fathers  senators  of 
Rome  the  arbiters  of  nations  to  you  I  fly  for  refuge.'  '  Alas 
poor  Yorick.'  '  Hear  me,  O  Lord  for  thy  loving  kindness  is 
great.'  '  Eternity  thou  pleasing,  dreadful  thought '  '  A  horse 
a  horse  my  kingdom  for  a  horse '  '  What  a  piece  of  work  is 
man  How  noble  in  reason  how  infinite  in  faculties  in  form 
and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable  in  action,  how  like 
an  angel  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god '  '  Woe  to  the  trai- 
tor, w^oe '  '  Up  comrades,  up '  '  Awake  arise  or  be  for  ever 
fallen  '  '  Step  softly  speak  low  make  no  noise '  '  Oh  bless 
the  Lord,  my  soul '    '  0  God  my  heavenly  Father ' 


PUNCTUATION.  83 

Remark.  —  The  interjection  0  is  properly  prefixed  to  an 
expression  in  a  direct  address  or  vocative  case ;  but  the 
interjection  oh  ought  never  to  be  so  employed.  0  should  be 
used  without  the  mark  of  exclamation  immediately  after  it ; 
but  oh,  sometimes  with,  and  sometimes  without  it,  according 
to  the  construction  and  sense  of  the  passage  in  which  it  occurs ; 
as,  '  O  Grod  ! '  ' Oh !  what  a  glorious  day  ! '  'Oh  that  I  knew 
my  fate ! ' 


THE   DASH. 

The  dash  [ — ]  is  a  straight  line,  and  is  used  for  the  pur- 
poses specified  in  the  following  rules. 

Rule  1.  The  dash  may  be  used  with  propriety,  where  the 
sentence  breaks  off  abruptly ;  where  a  significant  pause  is 
required  ;  or  where  there  is  an  unexpected  turn  in  the  senti- 
ment; as, 

'  Here  lies  the  great  —  False  marble !  where  ? 
Nothing  but  sordid  dust  lies  here.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  "Was  there  ever  a 
bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band  ?  Was  there  ever  but 
I  scorn  to  boast.'  '  If  you  will  give  your  attention,  I  will 
show  you  but  stop  !  I  do  not  know  that  you  wish  to  see.' 
'  Then  the  eye  of  a  child  who  can  look  unmoved  into  that 

*  well  undefiled,'  in  which  heaven  itself  seems  to  be  reflected  ? ' 

*  He  sometimes  counsel  takes  and  sometimes  snuff.'  '  There 
was  silence  not  a  word  was  said  their  meal  was  before  them 
God  had  been  thanked,  and  they  began  to  eat.'  '  When  the 
poor  victims  were  bayoneted,  clinging  round  the  knees  of  the 
soldiers,  would  my  friend  but  I  can  not  pursue  the  strain  of 
my  interrogation.'  '  He  was  too  weak,  however,  to  talk  he 
could  only  look  his  thanks.'  '  The  four  greatest  names  in 
English  poetry  are  almost  the  first  four  we  come  to  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton.'  *  Shall  I,  who  was  born, 
and  brought  up,  in  the  tent  of  my  father,  that  most  excellent 
general  shall  I,  the  conqueror  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  and  not 
only  of  the  Alpine  nations,  but  of  the  Alps  themselves  shall  I 
compare  myself  with  this  half-year  captain  ? ' 


84  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule  2.  The  dash  may  be  used  after  a  comma  or  semi- 
colon, between  the  several  clauses  of  a  long  sentence,  when 
they  constitute  a  series  ;  as,  '  If  acting  conformably  to  the  will 
of  our  Creator ;  —  if  promoting  the  welfare  of  mankind  around 
us  ;  —  if  securing  our  own  happiness  ;  —  are  objects  of  the 
highest  moment :  then  are  we  loudly  called  upon  to  cultivate 
and  extend  the  great  interests  of  religion  and  virtue.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following  :  '  The  noble  indignation 
with  which  Emmett  repelled  the  charge  of  treason  against  his 
country  the  eloquent  vindication  of  his  name  and  his  pathetic 
appeal  to  posterity,  in  the  hopeless  hour  of  condemnation  all 
these  entered  deeply  into  every  generous  bosom,  and  even  his 
enemies  lamented  the  stern  policy  that  dictated  his  execution.' 
'  The  poor  child  of  nature  beholds  God  in  the  star  that  sinks 
in  beauty  behind  his  lonely  dwelling  in  the  sacred  orb  that 
flames  on  him  from  his  midway  throne  in  the  flower  that 
snaps  in  the  morning  breeze  in  the  lofty  pine  that  defies  a 
thousand  whirlwinds  in  the  timid  warbler  that  never  leaves 
his  native  grove  in  the  fearless  eagle  whose  untired  pinion  is 
wet  in  clouds  in  the  worm  that  crawls  at  his  feet  and  in  his 
own  matchless  form  glowing  with  a  spark  of  that  light  to 
whose  mysterious  source  he  bends  in  humble,  though  blind 
adoration.' 

Remark.  —  Some  writers  use  the  dash  instead  of  the  paren- 
thetical marks ;  as,  '  Every  star  —  if  we  may  judge  by  analo- 
gy —  is  a  sun  to  a  system  of  planets.'  Others  use  it,  where 
there  happens  to  be  an  ellipsis  of  words  or  phrases ;  as- 
'  What !  is  it  only  in  dreams,  that  beauty  and  loveliness  have 
beamed  on  me  from  the  human  countenance,  —  that  I  have 
heard  tones  of  kindness,  which  have  thrilled  through  my 
heart,  —  that  I  have  found  sympathy  in  suffering,  and  a 
sacred  joy  in  friendship  ? '  Others,  again,  use  it  variously, 
without  regard  to  any  rule  or  principle. 


THE    HYPHEN. 


The  hyphen  [-]  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  line  to  unite  syl- 
lables of  the  same  word,  when  part  is  written  in  one  line  and 
part  in  the  next.     It  is  also  used  to  join  two  words  so  as  to 


PUNCTUATION.  85 

make  one  ;  as,  '  church-yard  ;'  and  also  to  keep  distinct  what 
should  be  separate  syllables  ;  as,  '  Zo-ology/ 

JRemark.  —  The  scholar  should  be  very  careful  to  use  the 
hyphen  properly.  At  the  end  of  a  line,  he  should  never  split 
or  divide  a  syllable ;  and,  in  foi-ming  compound  words,  he 
should  never  use  the  hyphen  where  '  good  usage '  has  made 
the  words  to  coalesce. 


THE   PARENTHESIS. 

The  parenthetical  marks  ( )  are  two  curved  lines,  which 
include  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing  some  necessary  infor- 
mation, or  useful  remark,  but  which  may  be  omitted  without 
destroying  the  sense  ;  as, 

'  Know,  then,  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 
Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Every  planet  as  the 
Creator  has  made  nothing  in  vain  is  most  probably  inhabited.' 
'  If  we  exercise  upright  principles  and  we  cannot  have  them 
unless  we  exercise  them,  they  must  be  perpetually  on  the 
increase.'     '  Left  now  to  himself  malice  could  not  wish  him  a 
worse  adviser,  he  resolves  on   a  desperate   project.'     '  The 
badness  of  the  times  as  the  vulgar  phrase  expresses  a  scene 
of  distress  frequently  depends  more  on  those  who  govern  the 
ship,  than  on  the  weather.'     '  As  in  riper  years  all  unreason- 
able returns  to  the  levity  of  youth  ought  to  be  avoided  an 
admonition  which   equally  belongs  to  both   the  sexes,  still 
more  are  we  to  guard  against  those  intemperate  indulgences 
of  pleasure  to  which  the  young  are  unhappily  prone.' 
'  I  would  not  enter  on  my  list  of  friends 
Though  graced  with  polished  manners  and  fine  sense, 
Yet  wanting  sensibility,  the  man 
Who  needlessly  sets  foot  upon  a  worm.' 
'  Let  us  since  life  can  little  more  supply 
Than  just  to  look  about  us,  and  to  die 
Expatiate  free  o'er  all  this  scene  of  man  ; 
A  mighty  maze  !  but  not  without  a  plan.' 


S6  THK    BLACK-BOARD. 


THE    BRAClvET. 

Brackets  or  crotchets  [  ],  like  parenthetical  marks,  generally 
include  explanatory  remarks  which  do  not  necessarily  belong 
to  the  subject,  though  they  may  be  necessary  to  a  right  under- 
standing of  it ;  as,  '  It  was  resolved,  that  we  [the  captain  and 
myself]  should  set  out  the  next  morning.' 


THE    APOSTUOPHE. 

The  apostrophe  [  '  ]  is  distinguished  from  the  comma  only 
by  being  placed  above  the  line ;  but  its  uses  are  altogether 
difierent.  It  is  used  to  abbreviate  or  shorten  a  word  ;  as, 
'  E'er,'  ne'er,  't  was.'  It  is  also  used  to  mark  the  possessive 
case  of  nouns  ;  as,  '  The  people's  rights.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 

Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  '  Lets  go  in,  gentlemen.' 

*  Thourt  a  good  boy.'  '  Thats  my  teacher.'  '  Tis  so.'  '  III 
do  it.'  '  Ive  lost  a  day.'  '  Im  here.'  *  Id  share  it  with 
thee.'    *  Theres  a  mistake  about  it.'    'Hes  always  so  positive.' 

*  Twill  please  me  much.'  '  Far  oer  the  mountain.'  '  Mongst 
horrid  shapes.'  '  Whereer  the  rude  and  moss-grown  beech 
oercanopies  the  glade.'  *  Moses  laws  were  admirably  adapted 
to  the  condition  of  the  Jews.'  '  Jesus  instructions  are  adapted 
to  all  times  and  conditions.'  '  I  have  been  to  visit  Mr.  Jacobs 
school,  in  which  Sophocles  Grammar  is  used.'  '  Blest  be  the 
day  I  scaped  the  wrangling  crew,  from  Pyrrhos  maze  and 
Epicurus  sty.' 

Remark.  —  These  last  examples  suppose  the  scholar  to 
be  acquainted  with  the  grammatical  use  of  the  possessive 
case,  and  the  manner  of  applying  the  sign. 


THE   carp:t. 


The  caret  [a]  is  used  to  show  where  some  word  or  word&, 
letter  or  letters,  which  have  been  left  out  by  mistake,  should 

her  p 

be  inserted;  as,  'Jane  loves  studies.'     * Disapointments  and 


are 


trials  often  blessings  in  disguise. 


PUNCTUATION.  87 


THE    QUOTATION. 

DouUe  commas  ["  "],  and  sometimes  single  commas  ['  '], 
are  xised  as  signs  of  quotation.  These  marks  include  words 
and  passages  taken  from  some  other  author  in  his  own  words ; 
as,  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man."  Lord  Bacon  says, 
that  '  knowledge  is  power.' 

Exercises  for  the  Black-hoard. 

Write  and  punctuate  the  following :  A  powerful  and  un- 
bridled imagination,  says  Sir  Walter  Scott,  is  the  author  and 
ai'chitect  of  its  own  disappointment.  Coleridge  speaks  of 
imagination  as  the  power  which  first  unsensualizes  the  mind  ; 
and  Cecil  declares  it  to  be  the  grand  organ  whereby  truth 
can  make  successful  approaches  to  the  mind.  —  In  the  New 
Testament,  we  learn  that  Jesus  said  to  the  Jews,  Is  it  not 
written  in  your  law,  —  I  said,  Ye  are  gods  ?  —  Godwin  says, 
that  men  should  not  come  too  near  each  other,  or  touch  in  too 
many  points.  Excessive  familiarity  is  the  bane  of  social 
happiness.  —  At  my  coming  in,  he  said,  You  and  the  physician 
are  come  too  late. 

Remarh.  —  The  quotation  marks,  being  placed  above  the 
line,  are  easily  distinguished  from  commas ;  those  preceding  a 
quotation  are  inverted.  A  quotation  contained  within  another 
is  generally  marked  by  two  single  commas. 


THE    INDEX. 


'  The  index  or  hand  [^p°]  points  to  some  remarkable  pas- 
sage ;  as,  '  1^"  All  orders  promptly  attended  to.' 


THE    PARAGRAPH. 


The  paragraph  [^]  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject, 
or  a  sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing.  It  is  seldom 
used,  except  in  the  Scriptures  and  some  old  books.  It  is,  also, 
occasionally  employed  as  a  reference. 


THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


THK   SECTION. 


The  section  [§]  is  used,  as  in  Locke's  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding,  and  in  law  books,  to  mark  the  division  of  a 
subject  or  chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 


THE    ELLIPSIS,    OR   BLANK. 

The  ellipsis,  or  blank,  is  generally  intimated  by  a  succession 

of  asterisks  or  stars  [*  *  *],  or  by  a  long  line  or  dash  [ ]. 

It  is  used  when  some  letters  in  a  word,  or  some  words  in  a 
verse  or  sentence,  are  omitted ;  as, '  The  k  —  g  is  a  most  con- 
summate ****.' 


THE   DUERESIS. 


The  dieeresis  [  ••  ]  consists  of  two  points  placed  over  the 
latter  of  two  vowels  which  would  otherwise  make  a  diphthong, 
and  parts  them  into  two  syllables  ;  as, '  Orthoepy.' 


THE    BRACE. 

The  brace  [,.^a.-,]  is  used  in  poetry,  at  the  end  of  a  triplet, 
or  three  lines  which  have  the  same  rhyme ;  and  also  to  connect 
a  number  of  words  with  one  common  term  ;  as, 
*  The  asterisk  *,  dagger  f, 

-  are  used  for  marginal  references.' 


Double  dagger  J, 
Parallel  lines  |, 
Figures  and  letters. 

From  ostentation  as  from  weakness  free, 
It  stands  like  the  cerulean  arch  we  see 
,     Majestic  in  its  own  simplicity. 


'1 


USE    OP    CAPITAL    LETTERS. 


Rule.  —  Every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter ; 
also  every  line  of  poetry ;  all  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  proper 
names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains,  rivers,  lakes. 


CAPITAL    LETTERS.  89 

ships,  &c. ;  all  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names ;  the  first 
word  of  every  direct  quotation  ;  the  titles  of  books  ;  the  pro- 
noun I,  and  the  interjection  0. 

Exercises  for  the  Black-board. 

Write  the  following  examples  correctly,,  according  to  the 
preceding  rule :  '  in  the  flourishing  periods  of  athens  and  rome, 
eloquence  was  power,  it  was  at  once  the  instrument  and  the 
spur  to  ambition,  the  talent  of  public  speaking  was  the  key  to 
the  highest  dignities  ;  the  passport  to  the  supreme  dominion 
of  the  state,  the  ix)d  of  hermes  was  the  sceptre  of  empire  ;  the 
voice  of  oratory  was  the  thunder  of  jupiter.' 

'  no  eye  beheld  when  william  plunged 
young  edmund  in  the  stream  ; 
no  human  ear,  but  William's,  heard 
young  edmund's  drowning  scream.' 

*  pope,  in  his  universal  prayer,  calls  the  lord  god  almighty, 
"Jehovah,  jove,  or  lord."  '  we  generally  speak  of  the  supreme 
being  as  the  creator,  the  governor,  the  preserver,  and  the  father 
of  mankind.'  '  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between  a  native 
american  and  a  wellbred  englishman.'  'new  england  and 
old  england  are  very  much  alike.'  'among  the  countries 
in  europe,  france  and  england  take  the  lead,  their  capitals, 
paris  and  london,  are  two  of  the  finest  cities  on  the  other  side 
of  the  atlantic'  '  were  i  to  travel  in  europe,  i  should  wish  to 
understand  the  french,  the  german,  the  Spanish,  and  the  italian 
languages.'  '  i  have  seen  so  much,  in  books,  of  paternoster  row, 
of  lincoln's  inn,  of  high  street,  —  and  read  so  much  in  geogra- 
phy, about  the  red  sea,  the  british  channel,  the  frith  of  forth, 
the  lake  of  geneva,  the  thames,  the  alps,  &c.,  —  and  heard  so 
much  about  their  victoria  ships  and  iron  steamers,  —  that,  in 
my  own  imagination,  i  have  formed  a  pretty  good  opinion 
how  all  these  things  look.'  '  i  have  read  shakspeare's  plays, 
goldsmith's  history,  and  sheridan  knowles*  tragedy,  virginius.' 
'  oh !  for  a  closer  walk  with  god ! '  '  o  thou  that  roUest  above, 
round  as  the  shield  of  my  fathers !  whence  are  thy  beams,  o 
sun  !  thy  everlasting  light  ? ' 

Remark.  —  It  was  formerly  customary  to  use  capital  letters 
with  greater  frequency,  and  with   less  discrimination,  than 
it  is  at  the  present  day.    And,  even  now, '  good  usage'  is  some- 
8* 


90  THE    BLACK-BOAKD. 

what  divided.  Titles  of  honor  and  respect,  —  words  personi- 
fied, or  of  primary  importance,  —  are  generally  begun  with 
capitals;  'His  Excellency,'  'His  Honor;'  'The  Rebellion/ 
*  The  Revolution ;'  '  Better  to  sit  in  Freedom's  hall.' 


VERSIFICATION. 


There  are  various  kinds  of  poetry  which  come  under  the 
head  of  Versification ;  such  as  the  Epic,  tlie  Lyric,  the  Dra- 
matic, &c.  These  cannot  always  be  easily  distinguished. 
They  run  into  eacli  other,  precisely  like  colors  :  in  their  strong 
tints,  they  are  easily  distinguished ;  but  are  susceptible  of  so 
much  variety,  and  of  so  many  diflFerent  forms,  that  we  cannot 
always  say  where  one  species  ends  and  another  begins. 

Epic  poetry  usually  comprises  narrations  of  past  scenes  and 
actions.  When  it  describes  the  exploits  of  a  hero,  as  noble, 
brave,  and  magnanimous,  it  is  called  heroic  poetry.*  When  it 
describes  the  scenes  and  incidents  of  rural  or  country  life,  it  is 
called  pastoral  poetry.  When  it  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  teach- 
ing, and  giving  moral  instruction,  it  is  called  didactic  poetry. 

Lyric  poetry  is  adapted  to  musical  instruments,  such  as  the 
lyre  or  harp.  When  fitted  to  be  sung,  and  employed  for 
devotional  purposes,  it  is  called  sacred  poetry.  When  it  con- 
sists of  plaintive  or  mournful  strains,  calculated  to  produce 
sorrow,  it  is  called  elegiac  poetry. 

Dramatic  poetry  consists  of  a  historic  poem  or  play,  adapted 
to  scenic  representation.  When  fitted  to  produce  mirth- 
ful joUity  or  merriment,  it  is  called  comic  poetry.  When  it 
terminates  in  a  disastrous  or  mournful  event,  it  is  called  tragic 
poetry.  When  made  up  of  merry  and  serious  events,  it  is 
called  tragi-comic  poetry. 

Application. 

What  are  the  principal  kinds  of  poetry  ?  Can  they  always 
be  easily  distinguished  ?     Why  not  ?  —  What  is  epic  poetry  ? 

*  B]ark-vers&  is  generally  heroic  verse  of  five  feet,  but  always  without 
rhyme. 


VERSIFICATION.  91 

When  is  it  called  heroic  ?  When  pastoral  ?  When  didactic  f 
—  What  is  lyric  poetry  ?  When  is  it  called  sacred  ?  When 
elegiac  f  —  AVhat  is  dramatic  poetry  ?  When  is  it  called 
comic  ?     When  tragic  ?     When  tragi-comic  ? 

SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  the  division  of  verses  into  a  certain  number  of 
feet.  All  poetic  feet  consist  of  two  or  three  syllables,  either 
accented  or  unaccented.  The  breve  (")  denotes  a  short  quan- 
tity, and  the  hyphen  (~)  a  long  one.  The  feet  most  commonly 
used  in  English  are  the  Trochee,  the  Iambus,  and  the  Anor 
pcest.  The  other  kinds  of  feet  are  occasionally  introduced 
for  the  sake  of  variety. 

OETIC    FEET. 

•  •  Dissyllable.  Trisyllable. 

A  Trochee,  -  w  A  Dactyle,  -    «    « 

An  Iambus,  w  -  An  Amphibrach,  w    -     w 

A  Spondee,  -  -  An  Anapaest,  w     w     - 

A  Pyrrhic,  w  w  A  Tribrach,  www 

A  METEICAL    GAMUT   FOE   THE    TBOCHEE. 

Tumty  I  tumty  |  tumty  |  tum, 
Tumty  I  tumty  |  tumty  |  turn, 
Tumty  I  tumty  |  tumty  |  tum, 
Tumty  I  tumty  |  tumty  |  turn. 

EXAMPLE    OP   THE    TROCHEE. 

Safely  )  through  an  |  other  |  week 
God  has  I  brought  us  J  on  Sur  |  way ; 

Let  us  I  now  S,  |  blessing  |  seek, 

Waiting  I  *in  his  |  courts  tS  |  day,  — 

Day  6f  |  all  the  |  week  the  |  best, 
Emblem  |  *8f  e  |  tem3l  [  rest. 

*  Pyrrhic  feet- 


92  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

While  we  |  seek  sup  ]  plies  8f  |  grace, 

Through  the  |  dear  Re  |  deeraer's  |  name, 

Show  thy  1  recSn  |  ciling  |  face, 

Take  a  |  way  our  |  sin  and  |  shame ; 

From  Qur  j  worldly  |  cares  set  |  free. 

May  we  j  rest  this  |  day  in  j  thee. 

Hgre  we  |  come  thy  |  name  to  |  praise ; 

Let  us  I  feel  thy  |  presence  |  near ; 
May  ihf  |  glory  |  meet  6ur  |  eyes, 

While  we  |  in  thy  |  house  ap  |  pear ; 
Here  af  |  ford  us,  |  Lord,  a  |  taste 
*0f  Sur  I  ever  |  lasting  |  feast. 

May  the  |  gospel's  |  jojrfiil  |  sound 
Conquer  |  sinners,  |  comfort  |  saints, 

Make  the  |  fruits  of  |  grace  S  |  bound. 
Bring  re  |  lief  from  |  all  com  |  plaints : 

Thus  let  I  all  our  |  sabbaths  |  prove, 

Till  we  I  join  the  j  church  a  |  bove.         Newton. 

A   METRICAL    GAMUT    FOR   THE    IAMBUS. 

Titam  I  titum  |  titum  j  titum, 
Titum  I  titum  I  titum; 
Titum  I  titum  |  titum  |  titum, 
Titum  I  titum  I  titum. 


EXAMPLE    OF   THE    IAMBUS. 

When  all  |  ihf  mer  |  cies,  O  |  raf  Grod, 

My  ris  I  ing  soul  I  stirveys, 
TrS,nsport  |  ed  with  |  the  view  |  I  'm  lost 

In  won  I  der,  love,  |  and  praise. 

tJnnum  |  bered  com  |  fbrts  on  |  mjf  soul 
Thy  ten  |  der  care  |  bestowed, 

Bgfore  I  vaf  in  |  f Snt  heart  |  cSnceived 
FrQm  whom  I  thSse  com  I  fSrts  flowed. 


VERSIFICATION.  93 

Ten  thou  |  sSnd  thou  |  sand  prec  |  lous  ^ts 

My  dai  |  Ij^  thanks  |  employ ; 
Nor  is  I  the  least  |  a  cheer  |  ful  heart, 

That  tastes  |  those  ^fts  |  with  joy. 

ThrSugh  ev'  |  rf  pe.|  riod  6f  |  m^  life, 

Thy  good  |  ness  I  '11  |  pursue ; 
And  af  I  ter  death,  |  in  dis  |  tant  worlds. 

The  glo  I  rious  theme  |  renew.  Addison. 

A   METRICAL    GAMUT   FOR   THE   ANAP^ST. 

Titittim  I  tititum  |  tititum  |  tititum, 
Tititum  I  tititum  j  tititum; 
Tititum  I  tititum  |  tititum  |  tititum, 
Tititum  I  tititum  |  tititum. 

EXAMPLE    OF   THE   ANAPiEST. 

*The  rose  |  had  been  washed,  |  *ju3t  washed  |  in  S  shower, 

*Which  Ma  |  ry  to  An  |  na  conveyed ; 
*The  plen  |  tiful  moist  |  ure  encum  |  bered  the  flower, 

*And  weighed  |  down  its  beau  |  tiful  head. 

*The  cup  I  was  all  ftUed,  |  and  the  leaves  |  were  all  wet, 

And  it  seemed,  j  to  a  fan  |  ciful  view, 
*T6  weep  |  f6r  the  buds  |  it  had  left  |  with  regret, 

On  the  flour  |  ishing  biish  |  where  it  grew. 

*I  hast  I  ily  seized  |  it,  unfit  |  5s  it  was 

For  a  nose  |  gay,  so  drip  |  ping  and  drowned ; 

♦And  swing  |  ing  it  rude  |  \f,  too  rude  |  ly^,  alas ! 
i  snapped  |  it  —  it  fell  |  t6  the  ground. 

*And  such,  I  1  gxclaimed,  |  is  the  pit  |  iless  part, 

*S6me  act  |  hf  the  del  |  icate  mind, 
*Rggard  |  less  Qf  wring  |  ing  and  break  |  ing  S.  heart, 

*Alread  j  y  tS  sor  J,rbw  resigned. 

*  Iambic  feet. 


94  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

*Tbi8  el  I  egant  rose,  |  had  I  shak  |  en  it  less, 

flight  have  bloomed  |  with  its  own  |  er  awhile ; 
And  the  tear  |  that  is  wiped  |  with  a  lit  ]  tie  address, 
May  be  fol  |  iQwed,  perhaps,  |  hf  a  smile.  Gowper. 

Application. 

What  is  scanning'^  How  many  syllables  are  there  in  a 
foot  ?  How  many  kinds  of  feet  ?  and  what  are  they  called  ? 
WiU  you  describe  them?  Write  on  the  black-board  the 
Metrical  gamut  for  the  Trochee  ;  and  let  all  the  scholars  prac- 
tise upon  it,  by  repeating  it  in  concert,  till  they  learn  the  dif- 
ference between  a  long  and  a  short  quantity,  —  an  accented 
and  an  unaccented  syllable.  Then  write  on  the  black-board 
the  Example  of  the  Trochee ;  and  let  them  practise  in  like 
manner,  upon  that.  Pursue  the  same  course  with  the  Iambus 
and  the  Anapcest.  Then  take  other  pieces  of  poetry,  and  let 
the  scholars  practise  upon  them.  By  a  little  attention  to  the 
subject  of  scanning,  the  other  varieties  of  feet  and  measure 
may  be  easily  taught.  For  rides  determining  the  quantity  of 
syllables,  see  Groldsbury's  '  Sequel,'  page  63. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

The  analysis  of  a  sentence  consists  in  dividing  it  into  the 
several  parts  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  pointing"  out  their 
mutual  relations.  For  an  explanation  of  phrases  and  sen- 
tences, see  Goldsbury's  '  Grammar,'  page  86,  and  '  Sequel'  to 
the  same,  page  65. 

Every  sentence  has,  at  least,  one  subject  and  one  predicate. 
The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed.  The 
predicate  affirms  something  of  its  subject ;  as,  '  G^od  scholars 
learn  their  lessons  well.'  Here,  <  good  scholars '  is  the  sub- 
ject, and  <  learn  their  lessons  well '  is  the  predicate. 

SUBJECT. 

The  subject  of  every  sentence  is  either  grammatical  or 
logical.     The  grammatical  subject  is  either  some  noun,  or 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  95 

some  word  or  phrase  used  instead  of  a  noun.  The  logical 
subject  consists  of  the  grammatical  subject,  with  its  various 
modifications  ;  as,  ^Scholars  of  industrious  habits  become  wise.' 
Here,  '  scholars '  is  the  grammatical,  and  '  scholars  of  indus- 
trious habits,'  the  logical  subject. 

Tlie  subject  of  a  sentence  is  either  simple  or  compound. 

A  simple  subject  is  a  single  noun,  or  a  word  standing  for  a 
noun,  either  alone  or  variously  modified ;  as,  '  Life  is  short ;' 
'^The  longest  life  of  man  is  short.' 

A  compound  subject  consists  of  two  or  moi*e  simple  sub- 
jects, to  which  one  predicate  belongs ;  as,  '  The  girls  and  boys 
have  recited.' 

Note.  —  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that  words  are  said  to 
modify  or  limit  others,  when  they  serve  to  explain,  describe, 
enlarge,  restrict,  or  othei'wise  qualify  their  meaning ;  and  also, 
that,  if  the  grammatical  subject  is  not  modified,  it  is  the  same 
as  the  logical  subject. 

PREDICATE. 

The  predicate,  like  the  subject,  is  either  grammatical  or 
logical.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  the  verb  which  asserts 
or  affirms  something  of  its  subject.  The  logical  predicate 
consists  of  the  grammatical  predicate  with  its  various  modifi- 
cations ;  as,  '  The  Legislature  have  elected  Daniel  Webster  to 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States'  Here,  *  have  elected '  is  the 
grammatical,  and  '  have  elected  Daniel  Webster  to  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States,'  the  logical  predicate. 

The  predicate  ulso,  like  the  subject,  is  either  simple  or 
compound. 

A  simple  predicate  is  one  which  contains  a  single  finite 
verb  ;  as,  '  The  scholar  studies." 

A  compound  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  pre- 
dicates belonging  to  the  same  subject ;  as, '  The  scholar  studies 
and  learns.' 

Note.  —  "When  the  grammatical  predicate  is  not  modified, 
it  is  the  same  as  the  logical  predicate. 

SIMPLE    SENTENCE. 

In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is 
to  divide  it  into  its  logical  subject  and  prediccUe. 


06  ^HE  BLACK-BOAKD. 

In  analyzing  the  logical  subject,  the  grammatical  subject 
should  first  be  pointed  out,  then  the  words  which  modify  "or 
limit  it,  and  then  the  words  which  modify  or  limit  them,  and 
so  on,  till  the  logical  subject  is  exhausted. 

In  analyzing  the  logical  predicate,  the  gx'ammatical  predi- 
cate should  first  be  pointed  out,  then  the  words  which  modify 
or  limit  it,  and  then  the  words  which  modify  or  limit  them, 
and  so  on,  till  the  logical  predicate  is  exhausted. 

COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

In  analyzing  a  compound  sentence,  it  should  first  be  re- 
solved into  the  simple  sentences  of  which  it  is  composed.  It 
should  then  be  analyzed  in  the  manner  above  described ;  and 
the  rules  for  the  agreement  and  government  of  words  should 
be  given. 

Example  1. 

The  analysis  of  a  simple  sentence.  — '  A  plain  understand- 
ing is  often  joined  x^ith  great  worth.'  Here,  *  a  plain  under- 
standing '  is  the  logical  subject ;  and  *  is  often  joined  with  great 
worth,'  is  the  logical  predicate. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  '  understanding.'  This  is  modi- 
fied by  *  plain,'  and  limited  by  *  a.' 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  *  is  joined.'  This  is  modified 
by  *  often,'  and  limited  by  the  phrase  'with   great  worth.* 

*  With '  shows  the  relation  between  *  is  joined '  and  '  worth.' 

*  Great'  describes  'worth ;'  and  '  worth'  is  governed  by  'with.' 

Example  2. 

The  analysis  of  a  compound  sentence.  — '  Men  of  learning 
are  almost  always  poor,  because  they  do  not  set  their  hearts 
upon  riches.'  This  sentence  is  thus  resolved  into  simple  sen- 
tences. Primary  sentence :  *  Men  of  learning  are  almost 
always  poor.'  Secondary  sentence :  *  They  do  not  set  their 
hearts  upon  riches.'  The  latter  sentence  depends  upon  the 
former ;  and  '  because '  is  the  connective. 

In  the  primary  sentence,  '  men  of  learning '  is  the  logical 
subject ;  and  '  are  almost  always  poor,'  the  logical  predicate. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  '  men.'  This  is  limited  by  the 
phrase  '  of  learning.'  '  Of  shows  the  relation  between  '  men' 
and  '  learning ;'  and  '  learning '  is  governed  by  '  of.' 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  'are.*     'Almost'  modifies 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  97 

'always;'  'always'  modifies   'poor;'  and  'poor'   describes 

*  men.' 

In  the  secondary  sentence,  '  they '  is  both  the  logical  and 
the  grammatical  subject ;  and  '  do  not  set  their  hearts  upon 
riches,'  is  the  logical  predicate. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  '  do  set.'    This  is  modified  by 

*  not,'  and  limited  by  '  their  hearts,'  and  by  the  phrase  '  upon 
riches.'  '  Their '  is  governed  by  '  hearts,'  and  relates  to  *  men.' 
'  Hearts '  is  governed  by  '  do  set.'  *  Upon'  shows  the  relation 
between  '  do  set '  and  '  riches ;'  and  '  riches '  is  governed  by 

*  upon.' 

Miscellaneous  Examples  for  Practice  on  the  Black-board 
or  Slate. 

The  school  of  experience  teaches  many  useful  lessons. 

A  great  portion  of  human  evils,  is  created  by  ourselves. 

Compassion  prompts  us  to  relieve  the  wants  of  others. 

In  youth,  the  habits  of  industry  are  most  easily  acquired. 

The  spirit  of  true  religion  is  social,  kind,  and  cheerful. 

The  contented  mind  spreads  ease  and  cheerfulness  around  it. 

Opportunities  occur  daUy  for  strengthening  the  habits  of 
virtue. 

The  day  was  calm,  and  the  scene  delightful. 

William  was  respected,  because  he  was  upright  and  obliging. 

If  greatness  flatters  our  vanity,  it  multiplies  our  dangers. 

I  will  submit,  for  submission  brings  peace.  ^ 

The  doctor  arrived,  but  he  came  too  late. 

Piety  and  virtue  are  very  becoming  in  the  young. 

The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart,  that  there  is  no  Grod. 

"When  a  person  is  idle,  he  is  almost  always  tempted  to  do 
wrong. 

Note.  —  Those  who  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  fiirther,  are 
referred  to  a  work,  now  in  press,  by  Mr.  S.  S.  Greene,  a 
teacher  in  one  of  the  Boston  schools.  Not  having  seen  the 
whole  work,  I  know  comparatively  little  about  it,  except  that 
it  will  contain  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pages,  and  be  ac- 
companied with  a  chart ;  but,  from  my  knowledge  of  its  author, 
I  have  formed  high  expectations  of  it. 

9 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  ARITHMETIC. 


There  are  two  methods  of  teaching  Arithmetic,  —  the 
analytic  and  the  synthetic. 

The  analytic  method  consists  in  resolving  a  compound  into 
its  several  parts  or  first  principles.  It  goes  into  an  examina- 
tion of  particulars ;  and,  by  a  direct  application  of  first  prin- 
ciples, it  leads  to  the  most  important  results.  Tliis  method  is 
sometimes  called  induction.  The  honor  of  first  introducing 
it  into  this  country,  is  due  to  Warren  Colburn,  the  author  of 
the  '  First  Lessons.' 

The  synthetic  method  consists  in  uniting  sundered  parts  into 
one  whole.  It  lays  down  general  principles  or  rules,  explains 
their  use,  and  requires  the  scholar  to  follow  them  implicitly. 
This  method  is  used  for  imparting  knowledge ;  the  analytic 
method,  for  acquiring  it.  Both  may  be  used  in  the  same  pro- 
cess, to  great  advantage. 

One  great  error  in  teaching  Arithmetic,  has  been,  and  still 
is,  to  allow  scholars  to  begin  at  the  wrong  place.  Instead  of 
requiring  them  to  begin  at  numeration,  or  even  at  addition, 
they  have  frequently  been  permitted  to  pass  over  these  first 
and  fundamental  principles,  and  to  begin  at  multiplication. 
The  numeration  and  addition  tables  have  been  almost  entirely  ^ 
displaced  by  the  multiplication  table.  Whereas,  scholars^ 
should  always  begin  at  numeration,  and  be  made  so  thoroughly 
acquainted  withi  the  simple  and  local  value  of  numbers,  as  to 
be  able  to  read  any  number  of  figures  at  first  sight.  They 
should  then  be  so  thoroughly  drilled  in  the  addition  and  com- 
bination of  numbers,  as  to  be  able  to  add  up  a  column  of  fig- 
ures with  as  much  ease  and  readiness,  as  they  can  read  a  line 
across  a  page,  in  plain  English.  They  will  then  be  prepared 
for  the  succeeding  rules.  Every  rule,  and  the  reasons  on 
which  it  is  founded,  should  be  thoroughly  understood,  before 
proceeding  to  other  rules.  In  this  way,  they  will  become  in- 
terested in  the  study,  and  be  prepared  to  exercise  their  reason 
in  solving  the  most  difficult  questions. 


ARITHMETIC. 


99 


Application. 
What  two  methods  are  there  in  teaching  arithmetic?  — 
What  is  the  analytic  method?  How  does  it  accomplish  its 
object  ?  What  is  it  sometimes  called  f  Who  first  introduced 
it  into  this  country  ?  —  What  is  the  synthetic  method  ?  How 
does  it  accumplish  its  object  ?  May  these  two  methods  be 
united  in  the  same  process  ?  —  What  has  been  an  error  in 
teaching  arithmetic  ?  Where  have  scholars  commenced  the 
study  ?  Where  should  they  begin  ?  To  what  extent  should 
they  be  drilled  in  numeration  ? — in  addition  ?  For  what  will 
they  then  be  prepared  ?  —  Must  every  rule  be  understood  ?  — 
How  are  scholars  to  become  interested  in  the  study  ? 


NUMEfiATION. 

Numeration  teaches  how  to  express  the  value  of  numbers 
by  certain  characters  or  figures.  All  numbers  are  expressed 
by  the  ten  following  Arabic  characters  or  figures :  0,  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  Any  significant  figure  placed  to  the  left  of 
another,  expresses  ten  times  the  quantity  that  it  would  express, 
if  it  occupied  the  place  of  the  latter.  Hense  arises  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  simple  and  local  value  of  figures. 

NUMERATION   OF   WHOLE   NU3IBERS. 


3       3 


^      -^       3 


■2     a 
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Application. 
Write  the  whole  numbers  on  the  black-board,  and  point 
them  off  into  periods  of  three  figures  each,  commencing  at 


100  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

the  right  hand.  Then,  with  the  pointer,  direct  the  attention 
of  the  pupils  to  each  period  of  the  numbers,  and  teach  them 
to  enumerate  them  by  pei-^iods ;  first  from  right  to  left,  and 
then  from  left  to  right.  When  they  have  learned  perfectly 
the  enumeration  by  periods,  teach  them  to  enumerate  or  fill  up 
each  period  with  units,  tena,  hundreds,  of  eao.h  dpnomination ; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  explain  the  simple  and  local  value  of 
the  figures. 

NUMERATION    OF   DECIMALS. 


is    »l    «§    «5ri  §S  ■  cl    sa    £3    Si 

.-Is     II     1=3     S§6  l|S  5.S^  §15^  g^.  -£3  . 
.  si   S^"   oS^   S««o   §&-§  ^o'a  ~cy%  SseS  31K5  aoa 

8         <^£i  ,*£fl  s£c  ~SS  B£S   =g^   =£3   ^£3   g'£.o   o£5 

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egq  5=5  S^g  §33  §3=3  §  =  »  §  =  3  S^g  s  a »  §  =  0  Sao 
Wfits  hKh  hWS  HW«  EhMh  hKC  HBO?  HMaQ  hWo2  hWO  hWS25 
789, 123. 466. 789. 128. 486. 789. 123. 456. 789. 123 


Application. 

"Write  the  table  of  decimals  on  the  black-board,  and,  for 
convenience,  point  them  ofi"  into  periods  of  three  figures  each, 
commencing  at  the  right  hand,  to  express  the  numerator  of 
the  fraction.  Then,  with  the  pointer,  teach  the  pupils  to  enu- 
merate the  decimals  both  ways,  first  decimally,  from  left  to 
right ;  and  then,  as  in  whole  numbers,  from  right  to  left.  Then 
teach  them  to  read  them,  like  whole  numbers,  pronouncing  the 
name  of  the  last  denomination  mentioned  in  the  decimal  enu- 
meration, for  the  denominator  of  the  fraction ;  and,  at  the 
same  time,  explain  to  them  what  the  denominator  of  a  deci- 
mal fraction  is,  and  must  always  be. 


ADDITION. 


Take  the  nine  digits,  and  write  them  on  the  black-board  in 
an  inverse  order,  9,  8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  so  as  to  have  the 
smallest  figure  come  on  the  right,  with  which  to  begin  the 
operation.    Under  each  of  the  nine  digits,  write  the  figure  2, 


ARITHMETIC.  101 

and  draw  a  line  underneath.  Let  the  figure  2  be  now  added 
and  re-added,  both  ways,  to  each  of  the  nine  digits,  till  their 
simple  combinations  are  perfectly  learned.  Do  the  same 
thing  with  the  figure  3,  the  figure  4,  the  figure  5,  and  so  on,  tiU 
all  the  figures  have  been  added  and  re-added  to  every  other 
figure,  and  their  simple  combinations  are  perfectly  understood. 

jEhsamples. 

1.  2. 

987654321       987654321 
222222222       333333333 


3.  4. 

987654321       987654321 
444444444       555555555 


5.  6. 

987654321       987654321 
666666666       777777777 


7.  8. 

987654321       987654321 
888888888       999999999 


The  facility  with  which  these  combinations  are  learned, 
will  depend  very  much  upon  the  skUl  of  the  teacher.  In  the 
foregoing  examples,  the  figures  increase  regularly  from  right 
to  left,  and  diminish  in  the  same  manner  from  left  to  right. 
Next,  without  regard  to  order,  from  right  to  left,  and  vice 
versa  from  left  to  right,  let  the  teacher  select  any  two  num- 
bers, and  require  the  pupil  to  give  the  amount ;  and  so  pro- 
ceed through  aU  the  above  examples. 

Let  other  examples  be  given.  Let  the  figures  be  selected 
without  regard  to  order,  and  placed  in  any  order  which  the 
teacher  chooses. 

9* 


102  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

Mxamples. 
1.  2. 

987  6  54321  945876352 

584397854  763985497 


When  scholars  have  taken  this  first  step,  and  learned  well 
aU  the  simple  combinations,  they  will  be  prepared  to  take 
another.  Let  them  next  be  required  to  write  simple  and 
combined  numbers  over  each  other  on  the  black-board.  Take, 
for  example,  4  and  5,  14  and  5,  24  and  5,  34  and  5,  and  so 
on,  to  any  extent  which  the  teacher  chooses. 

Example. 

55555555555 

104  94  84  74  64  54  44  34  24  14    4 


Let  the  teacher  then  direct  the  attention  of  his  pupils  to  the 
right-hand  figures,  and  say,  how  many  are  4  and  5  ?  Ans.  9, 
(a  simple  combination,) — How  many  are  14  and  5  ?  Ans. 
19  ;  because  4  and  5  are  9,  and  10  units  added,  make  19.— 
How  many  are  24  and  5  ?  Ans.  29,  because  4  and  5  are  9, 
and  20  units  added,  make  29. — How  many  are  34  and  5  ? 
Ans.  39,  because  4  and  5  are  9,  and  30  units  added,  make 
39. — Pursue  the  same  course  with  the  remaining  figures,  till 
their  combination  is  perfectly  understood.  Then  take  two 
other  figures,  and  pursue  the  same  course ;  and  then  two 
others,  and  so  on,  till  the  combination  of  all  the  figures  is  well 
understood.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  make  scholars 
thoroughly  understand  the  combination  of  figures,  —  that  any 
two  figures  being  added  to  a  third,  always  produce  a  certain 
result,  which  may  be  known  by  referring  to  the  simple 
combination. 

Explanation  of  the  Rule. 

The  rule  of  addition  is  founded  on  the  axiom,  that  *  the 
whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its  parts.'  To  explain  this, 
let  the  numbers  675,  325,  246, 156,  be  decomposed,  and  their 
several  parts  be  added. 


ARITHMETIC.  103 


Operation. 

The  first  is  600-f-  70-j-  5=  675 

The  second  is  SOO-f  20-j-  5=  325 

The  third  is  20Q-\-  40-|-  6:=  246 

The  fourth  is  lOO-j-  SO-f-  6==  156 

The  wliole  is  1 200+1 80-}-22=:  1402 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  column  of  units  amounts  to 
22  units.  The  column  of  tens  amounts  to  180  units,  or  18 
tens.  The  column  of  hundreds  amounts  to  1200  units,  120 
tens,  or  12  hundreds.  But  to  save  the  trouble  of  setting  down 
and  adding  up  so  many  separate  amounts,  the  left  hand  figure 
is  carried  on,  and  united  immediately  with  the  next  column. 


One  metiiod  of  proving  Addition. 

Set  the  excess  of  nines,  in  each  row  of  figures,  to  the  right 
of  its  row ;  and  if  the  excess  of  nines  in  the  sum's  result,  and 
the  column  made  by  setting  out  the  several  excesses,  are  alike, 
the  work  is  right. 


Example. 

678967896789 
456789456789 
123456123456 
918273645578 

2177487122612 


Note. — The  figure  9  has  a  peculiar  property,  which,  except 

8,  belongs  to  no  other  figure,  viz.  that  any  number  divided  by 

9,  will  leave  the  same  remainder  as  the  sum  of  its  figures 
divided  by  9. 

Let  the  following  sums  be  now  written  on  the  black-board, 
and  added  aloud  without  the  assistance  of  the  teacher ;  and 
let  the  reason  of  carrying  for  tens  be  further  explained. 


104  THE  BLACK-BOARD. 

1.  2. 

123456789  78978  9  789 

234567891  897897897 

345678912  978978978 

456789123  456456456 

567891234  564564564 

678912345  645645645 

789123456  128456789 

891234567  987654321 

912345678  123456789 


SUBTRACTION. 


First,  let  the  pupils  be  exercised  in  the  simple  difference 
of  numbers.  For  this  purpose,  write  the  following  examples 
on  the  black-boai'd. 

1.  2. 


9  8  7  6  5  4  3 
2  2  2  2  2  2  2 

9  8  7  6  5  4 
3  3  3  3  3  3 

3. 

98765     9876 
44444     5555 

5.       6. 

9  8  7     9  8 
6  6  6     7  7 

Let  the  teacher  then  direct  their  attention  to  each  figure 
in  the  lower  line,  in  each  of  the  examples,  and  ask  the  differ- 
ence between  it  and  the  figure  above  it.  Let  the  questions  be 
asked,  first  from  right  to  left,  and  then  from  left  to  right. 

Then  take  the  nine  digits,  and  write  them  on  the  black- 
board in  an  inverse  order,  9,  8,  7,  6,  5,  4,  3,  2, 1,  so  as  to  have 
the  smallest  figure  come  on  the  right,  with  which  to  begin  the 
operation.  Under  each  of  the  nine  digits,  write  the  figure  2, 
and  draw  a  line  underneath ;  then  the  figure  3,  and  draw  a 
line  underneath ;  and  so  on,  till  the  examples  are  completed. 


AEITHMETIC.  105 

Examples. 

1.  2. 

987654321       987654321 
222222222       333333333 


987654321      987654321 
444444444       555555555 


5.  6. 

987654321       987654321 
666666666       111111111 


987654321       987654321 
888888888        99999999 


Let  the  teacher  then  direct  the  attention  of  his  pupils  to 
each  figure  in  the  lower  line,  in  each  of  the  examples,  ask 
the  appropriate  questions,  and  explain  the  reason  of  borrow- 
ing 10,  and  carrying  1  to  pay  the  debt. 

Explanation  of  the  Rvle. 

The  rule  of  Subtraction  is  founded  on  the  axiom,  that '  the 
gum  of  the  differences  of  all  the  similar  parts,  is  equal  to  the 
differences  of  the  whole.'  To  illustrate  this,  let  the  numbers 
54326  and  23437  be  decomposed,  and  their  several  parts  be 
subtracted. 

Operation. 

The  first  is        50000+4000+300+20-1-6=54326 
The  second  is     20000+3000+400+30+7=23437 

The  difference  is  30000+0000+800+80+9=30889 


106  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  borrowing  from  a  preceding  place 
to  increase  an  upper  place,  when  its  coiTespondent  lower  place 
is  the  largest,  is  only  resolving  the  upper  number  into  such 
parts  as  are  each  greater  than,  or  equal  to,  the  similar  parts 
of  the  less  number. 

We  begin  at  the  right  hand,  and  finding  that  we  can  not 
take  7  from  6,  we  borrow  10  from  20,  and  add  it  to  6,  which 
make  16.  From  16  we  take  7,  and  set  down  9.  As  10  are 
borrowed  from  20,  there  are  10  left.  We  can  not  take  30 
from  10 ;  we  therefore  borrow  100  from  300,  and  add  it  to 
10,  making  110,  from  which  we  take  30,  and  set  down  80; 
and  so  on  through  the  whole. 

In  borrowing  to  add  to  an  upper  figure  or  place,  instead  of 
considering  the  next  upper  figure  or  place  diminished,  it  haa- 
been  found  convenient  to  increase  the  next  lower  figure  or 
place,  which  produces  the  same  result. 

One  method  ofprovinff  Subtraction. 

Cast  out  the  nines  from  the  minuend,  and  place  the  excess 
at  the  right  hand.  Then  cast  out  the  nines  from  the  sub- 
trahend and  remainder,  and  add  their  excesses  together ;  and, 
if  the  work  be  right,  the  excess  of  the  nines  in  their  sum  will 
be  the  same  as  the  excess  of  the  nines  in  the  minuend. 

£!xample. 

87654893214567  ••.•  3,  excess. 

49321987654321  ••..  1,^ 

>•  excesses. 

38332905560246   ••-.  2,) 

sum  3,  excess. 


MULTIPLICATION. 


The  rule  of  Multiplication  is  founded  on  the  principle,  that 
'  the  multiplicand  is  taken  as  many  times  as  there  are  units  in 
the  multiplier.'  Either  of  the  two  numbers  may  be  made  the 
multiplier  or  multiplicand,  and  the  product  will  be  the  same. 


AUITHMETlCi  107 

To  illustrate  this  principle,  let  the  two  numbers  432  and 
375  be  decomposed,  and  multiplied  together. 

Operation. 

MidtipUcand  4:00-\-  30+  2  r=     432 
Multiplier  300-f-  70-f-  5  =     375 


2000+150-1-10  =  2160 
28000+2100+140  3024 

120000+  90004-  600  1296 

1 20000+37000+4700+290+10=1 62000 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  we  multiplied  through,  first  by 
5  units,  then  by  7  tens,  or  70,  and  then  by  300,  placing  the 
several  products  underneath,  and  adding  them  up,  making 
the  whole  product  162000. 

Note.  —  Multiplication  may  be  proved  by  casting  out  the 
nines  ;  and  '  the  work  will  always  prove  right  when  it  is  so ; 
but  it  will  not  always  be  right  when  it  proves  so.' 

Short  methods  of  Multiplying. 
1.  "When  the  multiplier  is  any  number  of  nines,  annex  as 
many  ciphers  to  the  right  of  the  multiplicand  as  there  are 
nines  in  the  multiplier ;  under  this  new  multiplicand  write 
the  old  one,  units  under  units,  and  tens  under  tens,  &c. ;  and 
then  subtract,  and  the  difference  is  the  true  answer. 

Example. 
Multiply  456789  by  99999. 

45678900000 
456789 


45678443211  Ans. 


2.  When  the  multiplier  is  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  19,  place 
the  multiplier  at  the  right  of  the  multiplicand,  with  the  sign 
of  multiplication  between  them  ;  multiply  the  multiplicand  by 
the  unit  figure  of  the  multiplier,  removing  the  product  one 
place  to  the  right  of  the  multiplicand ;  this  product  and  the 
multiplicand  make  the  total  product. 


108  THE  BLACK-BOAKD. 

Example. 

-76548932456789X13 
229646797370367 


995136121938257  Ana. 

3.  When  the  multiplier  is  101,  102,  103,  104,  105,  106, 
107,  108,  109,  multiply  by  the  unit  figure  of  the  multipUer, 
and  remove  the  product  two  places  to  the  right  of  the  multi- 
plicand ;  and  add  them  together  for  the  product. 

Example. 
123456789123456789  X 101 
123456789123456789 


12469135701469135689  Ans. 


4.  When  the  multiplier  is  21,  31,  41,  &c.,  to  91,  multiply 
by  the  ten's  figure  only,  of  the  multiplier,  and  set  the  unit 
figure  of  the  product  under  the  place  of  the  tens,  and  so  on  ; 
then  add  them  all  together,  and  their  sum  is  the  total  product. 

Example. 
98765431987654321X21 
197530863975308642 


2074074071740740741  Ans. 


METHOD    OF   TEACHING   THE   MULTIPLICATION   TABLE. 

The  following  is  an  easy  and  expeditious  method  of  teach- 
ing the  multiplication  table,  and  a  very  successful  one  to 
secure  the  attention  of  pupils.  Let  the  pupils  be  placed  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  room,  facing  each  other.  Let  the 
teacher  give  out  a  certain  figure,  (included  in  the  lesson 
which  they  have  been  required  to  study,)  4  for  instance  ;  and 
let  him  direct  his  pupils  on  one  side  to  say,  in  concert, 
'  4  times  1 ;'  to  which  the  pupils  on  the  opposite  side  should 
be  taught  to  reply,  'are  4;'  and  then  immediately  to  put 
back  to  the  opposite  division  '  4  times  2 ;'  to  which  they 
should  be  made  to  reply  '  are  8 ;'  and  then  immediately  to 


ARITHMETIC.  109 

put  back  to  the  other  division  *  4  times  3 ;'  to  which  they 
should  reply  'are  12  ;'  and  so  on,  till  the  lesson  is  completed. 
If,  in  any  instance,  a  wrong  answer  be  given,  the  true  answer 
should  be  given  by  the  opposite  side,  before  another  figure  is 
given  out. 

It  will  be  well  sometimes  to  vary  this  method,  by  requiring 
the  pupils  to  put  out  the  figures,  while  the  teacher  answers 
them  ;  and  the  teacher  should  frequently  answer  them  wrong, 
and  require  his  pupils  to  correct  him.  This  method  will  be 
sure  to  secure  attention. 


DIVISION. 

Division  is  the  reverse  of  multiplication ;  and  it  may  be 
proved  by  it.     To  illustrate  the  principle  on  which  the  rule 
is  founded,  let   the  dividend  6868,  and   the  divisor  34,  bo 
separated  into  parts,  as  foUows :  — 
Operation. 

30-f-4)60004-800-j-60-|-8( 200+2=202  Ans. 
6000-4-800 


60+8 
50+8 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  30  is  contained  in  6000,  200 
times.  We  then  multiply  the  whole  divisor  30+4  by  200, 
which  makes  6000+800.  These  we  subtract  from  the  first 
two  terms  of  the  dividend,  and  nothing  remains.  We  then 
bring  down  the  other  two  terms,  and  proceed  in  the  same 
manner  as  before. 


ABBREVIATION   OF  ARITHMETICAL    OPERATIONS. 

All  proportional  questions,  performed  by  multiplication  and 
division,  such  as  the  rules  of  Three,  single  and  double,  direct 
and  inverse  ;  Interest,  Discount,  Barter,  Loss  and  Gain,  Ex- 
change, Reduction,  Multiplication  and  Division  of  Fractions, 
&c.,  may  be  abbreviated,  and  the  operation  very  much  short- 
ened. 

10 


110 


THE   BLACK-BOARD. 


I.  To  abbreviate  operations  in,  multiplication  and  division^ 
draw  a  perpendicular  line,  placing  the  numbers  to  be  mul- 
tiplied on  the  right,  and  the  numbers  by  which  you  are  to 
divide,  on  the  left.  K  there  be  two  equal  numbers  on  each 
side  of  the  line,  cross  them  out,  and  omit  them  in  the  operation. 
If  a  number  on  one  side  of  the  line  divide  a  number  on 
the  other  side,  without  a  remainder,  erase  both  numbers,  and 
substitute,  for  the  larger,  the  number  of  times  it  contains  the 
smaller.  Then  multiply  the  remainders  together,  on  the 
right,  for  a  dividend  ;  and  the  remainders,  on  the  left,  for  a 
divisor. 

Example. 

Multiply  24  by  12,  and  divide  by  24;  then  multiply  the 
quotient  by  9,  and  divide  the  product  by  6. 


X^  2 
9 


18  Ans. 

II.  To  abbreviate  operations  in  fractions,  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular line,  placing  all  those  figures  which  are  to  be  mul- 
tiplied together  for  a  numerator  or  dividend,  on  the  right  of 
the  line,  and  those  figures  which  are  to  be  multiplied  together 
for  a  denominator  or  divisor,  on  the  left  of  the  line  ;  also,  the 
numerators  of  fractions,  by  which  a  division  is  to  be  made,  on 
the  left. 


Examples. 

1.  Multiply  i,f,  1,  f,  ^,  f,  together. 

fi 

1 

0 

^ 

4 

0 

0 

4 

0 

0 

7 

0 

• 

1 

1     I  Ans, 

Here  it  will  be  seen,  that  equals  on  each  side  of  the  line 
are  crossed  out.  When  no  two  numbers  remain,  one  on  each 
Bide  of  the  line,  capable  of  being  divided  by  any  one  figure, 


ARITHMETIC. 


Ill 


multiply  the  figures  on  the  right  of  the  line  for  a  numerator 
or  dividend,  and  those  on  the  left  for  a  denominator  or  divisor, 
and  the  result  will  be  the  answer  in  the  lowest  terms  of  the 
fraction. 

2.   Divide  f  of  f  of  §  of  f ,  by  |. 


0  0 

5 


^ 


0  2 


5     2     f  Ans. 

m.  To  abbreviate  the  operation  of  all  proportional  ques- 
tions, draw  a  perpendicular  line,  placing  the  sign  of  the 
answer  on  the  left,  at  the  top  of  the  line,  and  that  number 
which  is  of  the  kind  with  the  answer  on  the  right,  at  the 
bottom ;  and  as  this  number  is  greater  or  less  than  the  answer 
sought,  place  the  greater^or  less  of  the  two  remaining  numbers 
on  d^e  right,  and  the  other  on  the  left,  and  proceed  in  all 
respects  as  required  in  Direct  or  Inverse  Proportion ;  but, 
if  it  be  a  question  in  Double  Proportion,  place  any  two  of  the 
same  kind,  of  the  remaining  numbers,  one  on  the  right  and 
the  other  on  the  left ;  according  to  directions  for  Direct  or 
Inverse  Proportion. 

£!xamples. 

1.  If  5  men  can  build  a  wall  in  24  days,  in  how  many 
days  can  15  men  build  the  same  ? 

Days.     0  men. 


0 


u 


M  days.     8 


8  days.  Ans. 

2.  If  4  men  can  build  400  rods  of  wall  in  36  days,  how 
many  rods  can  12  men  build  in  48  days  ? 

Rods.     X^  men. 
m  U  4 
$  M     400  rods. 


1600  rods,  Ans. 


112  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

Note.  —  This  method  of  abbreviating  or  cancelling  pro- 
portional terms,  has  many  advantages,  and  should  be  well 
understood,  both  by  teachers  and  pupils. 


CLASSIFICATION  IN   ABITHMETIC. 

In  every  large  district  school,  there  will  necessarily  be  a 
great  variety  of  studies,  and  most  of  the  teacher's  time  will 
be  consumed  in  listening  to  the  different  recitations  of  his 
pupils ;  so  that  he  will  have  but  little  time  left  to  give  positive, 
direct  instruction,  or  to  do  justice  to  any  subject  which  he 
pretends  to  teach.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  —  and  they  are 
very  numerous,  —  the  following  method  may  be  adopted  to 
advantage. 

Method. 

Let  all  the  pupils  studying  arithmetic  be  formed  into  classes, 
according  to  their  ages,  attainments,  and  abilities;  for,  un- 
less they  are  classified  in  some  way,  they  can  not  recei'^^ys- 
tematic  instruction.  Suppose  them  to  be  divided  iat^^ree 
classes,  —  one  in  Reduction,  —  one  in  Fractions,  —  and  one 
in  Interest.  Let  each  class  have  a  certain  amount  of  lesson 
assigned  beforehand,  to  be  thoroughly  studied,  and  to  be  ready 
at  a  given  time.  At  the  time  appointed,  let  the  three  classes 
be  called  out  at  once,  and,  if  practicable,  placed  on  different 
seats,  —  one  class  in  front  of  the  teacher,  —  one  on  his  right,  — 
and  one  on  his  left ;  eacl^  pupil  being  provided  with  his  arith- 
metic, slate,  and  pencil. 

Let  the  teacher  begin  with  one  of  the  classes,  —  the  class 
in  Interest,  for  instance  ;  and,  after  questioning  them  on  the 
principles  involved  in  their  lesson,  and  explaining  them  fully, 
let  him  give  them  a  sum  to  do,  either  on  their  slates,  or  on  the 
black-board. 

Then  let  the  teacher  turn  to  the  class  in  Fractions  ;  and, 
after  questioning  them,  in  the  same  way,  on  their  lesson,  and 
explaining  the  principles  fuUy,  let  him  give  them  a  sum  to  do, 
either  on  their  slates,  or  on  the  black-board. 

Then  let  the  teacher  turn  to  the  class  in  Reduction ;  and, 
after  questioning  them,  as  above  directed,  on  their  lesson,  and 
explaining  all  the  principles  involved  in  it,  let  him  give  them 
a  sum  to  do,  either  on  their  slates,  or  on  the  black-board. 


ARITHMETIC.  113 

By  this  time,  the  first  division  —  the  class  in  Interest  — 
have  probably  performed  their  sum.  Let  the  teacher  now 
say  to  this  division,  All  who  have  done  the  sum,  show  their 
slates.  At  this  command,  the  whole  division,  if  they  have 
performed  the  operation,  will  turn  their  slates  about,  and  pre- 
sent them  to  the  teacher,  with  a  certain  inclination  favorable 
for  him  to  see  whether  the  operation  is  right  or  wrong.  By 
glancing  his  eye  along  the  line  of  slates,  he  will  readily  detect 
an  error  in  the  operation,  and  challenge  the  individual  whose 
work  is  supposed  to  be  wrong,  requiring  him  to  explain  the 
sum,  or  tell  how  he  did  it.  As  soon  as  the  challenge  is  ac- 
cepted, —  and  there  is  no  declining  it,  —  every  slate  is  recov- 
ered to  its  former  position,  and  every  other  scholar  in  the 
division  is  busily  engaged  in  looking  after  the  individual  who 
is  attempting  to  demonstrate  the  sum.  As  soon  as  any  one 
discovers  a  mistake  or  a  difference  in  the  operation,  he  raises 
his  hand,  and  the  demonstration  is  stopped  till  the  point  at 
issue  is  settled.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  demonstration 
proceeds,  and,  in  this  way,  is  carried  on  to  its  completion,  when 
the  teacher  gives  out  another  sum  to  the  division. 

Then  let  the  teacher  direct  his  attention  to  the  second 
division,  the  class  in  Fractions,  and  repeat  the  same  words 
as  before,  All  who  have  done  the  sum,  show  their  slates.  The 
slates  being  reversed  and  presented  in  the  manner  already 
described,  the  teacher  glances  his  eye  along  over  the  slates, 
and  then  challenges  some  one,  whose  work  he  suspects  to  be 
wrong,  to  demonstrate  or  explain  the  sum.  As  soon  as  the 
slates  are  recovered  to  their  former  position,  the  demonstration 
proceeds  ;  and  every  other  scholar  in  the  division  is  watchmg 
the  operation  to  detect  the  errors,  if  there  be  any.  The  ques- 
tion being  explained  to  the  satisfaction  of  aU,  the  teacher  gives 
out  another  sum  to  the  division. 

Then  let  the  teacher  direct  his  attention  to  the  third  divis- 
ion, the  class  in  Reduction,  and  proceed,  in  all  respects,  as 
above  directed.  Let  this  course  be  pursued  with  the  three 
divisions,  till  their  lessons  are  completed.  One  division,  each 
time,  if  it  be  the  pleasure  of  the  teacher,  may  perform  the 
sums  on  the  black-board.  This  method  of  procedure  will 
not  only  save  much  of  the  teacher's  time,  but  excite  a  deeper 
interest  in  the  minds  of  his  pupils. 
10* 


114  THE   BLACK-BOABD. 


MATHEMATICAL    DEFINITIONS. 


1.  A  unit  is  a  single  or  individual  thing,  without  regard  to 
its  parts. 

2.  An  integer  is  either  a  unit  or  a  number  of  units. 

3.  A  fraction  is  any  part  or  parts  of  a  unit. 

4.  Factors  are  those  numbers  from  the  multiplication  of 
which  another  number  is  produced. 

5.  A  'product  is  that  number  which  is  produced  by  the 
multiplication  of  two  or  more  factors. 

6.  A  multiple  of  a  number  is  the  product  of  that  number 
by  some  integral  factor. 

7.  A  common  multiple  is  a  number  which  can  be  measured 
by  two  or  more  numbers. 

8.  An  even  number  is  that  which  can  be  divided  by  2,  with- 
out a  remainder. 

9.  An  odd  number  is  that  which  can  not  be  divided  by  2, 
without  a  remainder. 

10.  A  measure  of  a  number  is  one  which  will  divide  another 
number,  without  a  remainder. 

11.  A  common  measure  is  a  number  which  will  divide  two 
or  more  numbers,  without  a  remainder. 

12.  A  composite  number  is  one  produced  by  the  multipli- 
cation of  two  or  more  numbers.  ^» 

13.  A  prime  number  is  that  which  can  be  measured  only  by 
itself  or  by  unity;  as,  1,  2,  3,  5,  7,  11,  13,  17,  19,  23,  &c. 
Two  or  more  numbers  having  no  common  divisor  or  measure 
gi-eater  than  unity,  are  prime  to  each  other;  as,  8,  9,  11, 
13,  17,  &c. 

14.  The  aliquot  parts  of  a  number  are  the  parts  by  which 
it  is  measured,  or  into  which  it  can  be  divided. 

15.  A  square  number  is  the  product  of  a  number  multiplieid 
by  itself.  ~' 

1 6.  The  square  root  is  the  number  which,  being  multiplied 
by  itself,  produces  the  square  number. 

17.  A  cube  is  the  product  of  a  number  twice  multiplied  by 
itself. 

18.  The  cube  root  is  the  number  which,  being  twice  multi- 
plied by  itself,  produces  the  cube. 

19.  Commensurable  numbers  are  such  as  have  each  the 
same  common  divisor. 


ARITHMETIC.  115 

20.  Incommensurable  numbers  are  such  as  have  no  com- 
mon divisor. 

21.  The  nth  power  of  a  number  is  the  product  of  n  equal 
factors,  —  n  representing  any  integral  number  whatever. 

22.  The  exponent,  or  index  of  a  power,  is  that  number  by 
which  the  power  is  expressed. 

23.  The  root  of  a  power  is  that  nymber,  from  the  continued 
multiplication  of  which  a  certain  number  of  times  into  itself, 
the  power  is  produced. 

24.  A  perfect  number  is  that  which  is  equal  to  aU  its  aliquot 
parts,  divisions,  or  factors,  unity  being  included. 


PROPEBTIES    OF  .NUMBERS. 

1.  The  product  of  an  even  and  an  odd  number,  or  of  two 
even  numbers,  is  even. 

2.  The  product  of  any  two  odd  numbers,  is  an  odd  number. 

3.  The  product  of  any  number  of  odd  numbers,  is  odd. 

4.  An  odd  number  cannot  be  divided  by  an  even  number, 
without  a  remainder. 

5.  If  an  odd  number  measure  an  even  number,  it  will  also 
measure  the  half  of  it. 

6.  A.- square  number,  or  a  cube  number,  arising  from  an 
even  root,  is  even. 

7.  If  a  square  number  be  either  multiplied  or  divided  by  a 
number  that  is  not  a  square,  the  product  or  quotient  is  not 
a  square. 

8.  If  a  square  number  be  either  multiplied  or  divided  by 
a  square,  the  product  or  quotient  is  a  square. 

9.  The  difference  between  an  integral  cube  and  its  root,  is 
always  divisible  by  6. 

10.  The  product,  arising  from  two  different  prime  numbers, 
can  not  be  a  square. 

11.  The  product  of  no  two  different  numbers,  prime  to  each 
other,  can  make  a  square,  unless  each  of  those  numbers  be  a 
square. 

12.  Every  prime  number  above  2,  is  either  one  greater  or 
one  less  than  some  multiple  of  4. 

13.  Every  prime  number  above  3,  is  either  one  greater  or 
one  less  than  some  multiple  of  6. 


116  THE   BLACK-BOARD.  ' 

14.  Two  quantities  respectively  equal  to  a  third,  are  equal 
to  each  other. 

15.  The  equal  powers  or  roots  of  equal  quantities,  are 
equal. 

16.  If  equal  quantities  be  added  to,  subtracted  from,  multi- 
plied or  divided  by  equal  quantities,  the  sums,  remainders, 
products,  and  quotients,  will  be  respectively  equal. 

17.  The  sum  or  the  difference  of  any  two  even  numbers, 
is  an  even  number. 

18.  The  sum  or  difference  of  two  odd  numbers,  is  even. 

19.  The  sum  of  an  even  number  of  odd  numbers,  is  even. 

20.  The  sum  or  the  difference  of  an  even  number  and  an 
odd  number,  is  odd. 

Application. 

What  is  a  unit  ?  What  is  an  integer  f  Is  there  any  dif- 
ference between  them  ?  Illustrate  the  subject  on  the  black- 
board.— What  is  a  fraction  ?  What  is  the  difference  between 
an  integer  and  a  fraction?  Illustrate  the  subject  on  the 
black-board. — What  are  factors  f  Illustrate  the  subject  on 
the  black-board. — Pursue  the  same  course  with  the  other 
'  mathematical  definitions,'  and  also  with  '  the  properties  of 
numbers,'  till  the  whole  subject  is  thoroughly  understood. 


ARITHMETICAL    SIGNS. 

1.  Two  horizontal  lines  =  signify  '  are  equal  to  ; '  as  100 
cents  =:  1  doUar. 

2.  A  cross  -}-,  made  by  a  horizontal  and  a  perpendicular 
line  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles,  signifies  '  added  to ; ' 
as  7-f  5=12. 

3.  A  horizontal  line  —  signifies  '  subtracted  from,'  and 
shows  that  the  figure  following  it  is  subtracted  from  the  figure 
before  it ;  as,  14 — Gr^S. 

4.  An  inclined  cross  X,  resembling  the  letter  X,  signifies 
'multiplied  by;'  as,  4X5=20. 

5.  A  horizontal  line  -r-,  with  a  point  above  and  another 
below  it,  signifies  '  divided  by,'  and  shows  that  the  figure  be- 
fore it  is  divided  by  the  figure  after  it;  as,  9-^3  =r 6. 

6.  Dots  placed  in  the  following  order  :  : :  :  signify  pro- 
portion ;  as,  2  :  4  : :  8  :  16. 


METHOD  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 


The  most  important  part  of  geography  is  topography,  or 
the  relative  situation  of  places.  It  is  in  vain  to  think  of  learn- 
ing history  or  historical  geography,  without  first  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  topography.  This  can  be  best  acquired  by  the 
use' of  '  Mitchell's  Outline  Maps  ;'  but  it  may  be  learned  from 
the  common  Atlas,  in  connection  with  the  slate  and  the  black- 
hoard, 

1.  Map  of  the  World. 

Let  the  teacher  direct  the  attention  of  his  pupils  to  the  map 
of  the  world;  and,  to  illustrate  the  spherical  form  of  the  map, 
let  him  take  an  apple,  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts,  present 
the  convex  surface  of  both  parts  to  his  pupUs,  and  thus  show 
them,  that  both  sides  of  a  globe  or  sphere  can  be  represented 
by  hemispheres. 

Let  him  then  direct  their  attention  to  the  grand  divisions 
of  the  globe,  land  and  water.  Let  him  carefully  and  slowly 
point  out  the  limits  of  these  grand  divisions,  —  the  limits  of 
the  continents,  oceans,  and  countries  ;  and,  while  doing  this,  let 
him  give  their  different  names,  requiring  his  pupils  to  repeat 
them  after  him,  first  in  concert,  and  then  individually. 

Let  him  then  direct  their  attention  to  some  of  the  geo- 
graphical definitions,  and  point  out  the  subjects  on  the  map. 
The  cardinal  points,  the  circles  dividing  the  earth  into  polar 
hemispheres  and  zones,  and  the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude, 
should  be  distinctly  pointed  out^and  their  names  given  and 
explained.  These  names  and  explanations  should  be  repeated 
by  the  pupils,  first  in  concert,  and  then  individually. 

2.  Map  of  North  America. 

Let  the  teacher  direct  the  attention  of  his  pupils  to  the  map 
of  North  America ;  first  give  its  name,  and  require  them  to 
repeat  it  after  him ;  then  its  boundaries,  and  require  them  to 
do  the  same. 

Let  him  then  direct  their  attention  to  the  capes,  bays,  gulfs, 
mountains,  lakes,  principal  rivers,  and  political  divisions ; 
each  of  which  should  be  distinctly  pointed  out,  and  minutely 
described.  Their  names  should  then  be  given,  and  their 
positions  described,  by  the  pupils,  first  in  concert^  and  then 
individually. 


118  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

3.  Map  of  the  United  States. 

Let  the  teacher  direct  the  attention  of  his  pupils  to  the  map 
of  the  United  States  ;  first  give  its  name,  and  require  them  to 
repeat  it  after  him ;  then  its  boundaries,  and  require  them  to 
do  the  same. 

Let  him  then  direct  their  attention  to  the  capes,  bays,  gulfsy 
mountains,  lakes,  principal  rivers,  and  the  several  States  and 
territories ;  each  of  which  should  be  distinctly  pointed  out, 
and  minutely  described.  Their  names  should  then  be  given, 
and  their  positions  described,  by  the  pupils,  first  in  concert,  and 
then  individually. 

Let  this  method  of  instruction  be  pursued  upon  each  of  the 
OTHER  MAPS,  in  their  order,  till  the  pupils  have  been  over 
them  all.  But  let  it  not  be  supposed,  even  then,  that  they 
have  acquired  a  pei*fect  knowledge  of  topography.  Something 
more  is  necessary  for  this  purpose.  They  must  be  required 
to  review  these  maps,  and  try  their  skill  at  drawing  on  the 
slate  or  black-board.  This  exercise  is  the  best  and  most  suc- 
cessful method  of  communicating  instruction  in  this  interesting 
study.  Having  previously  studied  the  maps  thoroughly,  let 
them  now  try  their  skiU  at  drawing. 

Let  the  teacher  hang  up  before  them  the  map  of  the  State 
in  which  the  school  is  kept,  and  where  the  pupils  reside.  In 
an  instant,  every  slate  is  drawn,  and  every  eye  is  directed  to 
the  map.  Now  commences  an  interesting  exercise.  Each 
pupil  sketches  upon  his  slate,  first  the  boundaries,  next  the 
mountains,  then  the  rivers,  and  other  landmarks,  upon  as 
large  a  scale  as  the  slate  will  admit.  When  he  has  located 
the  capital  and  chief  towns,  and  given  names  to  the  mountains 
and  rivers,  he  has  finished  his  exercise.  All  the  slates  are 
then  examined,  and  each  performance  is  criticised. 

Pursue  the  same  course  with  the  maps  of  other  States,  and 
of  other  countries,  till  the  pupils  have  been  over  the  whole 
globe,  and  become  acquainted  with  the  topography  and  geog- 
raphy of  the  earth. 

These  exercises  should  be  reviewed,  at  stated  periods,  by 
drawings  upon  the  black-board.  Those  pupils  who  think 
they  have  the  topography  of  the  country  to  be  described,  so 
clearly  in  their  mind,  as  to  be  able  to  present  a  drawing  of  it 
upon  the  black-board,  should  be  requested  to  do  it,  without 
the  use  of  the  map.  Their  drawings  should  then  be  criticised 
by  the  whole  class,  without  the  aid  of  the  map. 


METHOD  OF  TEACHING  WBITING. 


Wkiting  is  an  important  branch  of  common  school  educa- 
tion. It  is  important  to  every  person  in  every  station  and 
pursuit.  Without  it,  the  great  business  of  life  could  not  well 
be  carried  on.  It  opens  a  channel  of  communication  between 
different  individuals  and  different  nations,  connects  the  human 
family  together,  and,  in  its  effects,  encircles  the  globe. 

Some  have  supposed,  that  a  peculiar  talent  is  requisite  to 
become  a  proficient  in  the  art  of  writing.  But  it  is  believed 
that  every  person  of  common  abilities,  with  proper  instruc- 
tion, may  become  a  good  writer.  To  attain  to  considerable 
skill  in  this  ai't,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  form  and  pro- 
portion of  the  letters  must  be  distinctly  impressed  upon  the 
mind,  and  the  power  of  executing  these  letters  with  facility 
must  be  acquired.  To  write  well,  the  pupil  must  have  dis- 
tinctly painted  on  his  mind  the  characters  which  he  intends  to 
place  on  paper;  and  to  execute  well,  he  must  acquire  the 
habit  of  forming  his  letters  nicely  and  gracefully.  But  it  is 
a  great  mistake  to  let  pupils  write  whenever  they  please,  and 
just  as  they  please.  They  will  never  become  good  writers  in 
this  way.  The  same  order  should  be  observed  in  this  exer- 
cise, as  in  every  other.  There  should  be  method,  —  there 
should  be  system;  and  the  pupils  should  be  governed  and 
guided  by  it.  At  present,  there  is  no  uniform  system ;  and, 
as  the  teachers  in  our  common  schools  are  continually  chang- 
ing, the  system  of  instruction,  whatever  it  may  be,  changes 
also.  The  consequence  is,  that  but  few  pupils  become  good 
writers.  Good  writing  must  be  legible ;  it  must  also  have 
some  degree  of  proportion,  regularity,  and  neatness. 

Mr.  George  W.  "Winchester,  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  has 
published  a  system  of  teaching  the  art  of  writing  on  the 
black-board,  which,  for  economy,  simplicity,  and  beauty,  is 
perhaps  unequalled.  By  it,  even  an  ordinary  teacher  can  im- 
part uniform  and  scientific  instruction  with  ease,  and  in  the 
most  thorough  manner,  to  a  large  number  of  pupils  at  the 
same  time,  by  placing  himself  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  seen 
by  them  all.     Besides,  his  system  will  produce  perfect  uni- 


120  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

fonnity  in  all  the  schools  where  it  is  used ;  and  a  change  of 
teachers  will  not  affect  the  style  of  writing  or  the  method  of 
instruction. 

Until  this  system,  or  some  other  like  it,  shall  be  generally 
introduced,  the  best  recommendation  that  can  be  given  to 
teachers,  is  to  exercise  their  pupils  more  upon  the  black-board. 
This  exercise  will  give  them  —  what  is  so  essential  to  good 
writing — the  free  movement  of  the  arm,  the  fore-arm,  and  the 
fingers.  It  wUl  increase  their  skill  in  the  form  and  propor- 
tion of  letters,  and  enable  them  to  execute  accurately  and 
promptly  the  examples  which  are  given  them  to  imitate. 
Whether  they  are  to  have  good  or  bad  examples,  well  or  ill 
arranged,  —  whether  they  are  to  consist  of  coarse  hand  or  fine, 
capital  letters  or  figures,  —  must  be  left  to  the  skill  and  taste 
of  their  teachers.  Nothing  more  can  be  reasonably  expected 
of  the  pupils,  than  to  imitate  well  the  examples  which  are 
set  them. 


ME.  WINCHESTER'S   METHOD    OF   TEACHING   PENMANSHIP. 

Method  of  Sitting,  and  of  Holding  Paper. 

The  left  side  should  slightly  incline  to  the  desk,  but  never 
touch  it.  The  left  arm  should  rest  on  the  desk,  seven  or 
eight  inches  from  the  front  edge,  and  parallel  with  it,  with 
the  fingers  on  the  paper.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the 
learner  does  not  lean  forward  while  writing,  as  this  position  is 
an  obstacle  to  success,  and  is  highly  injurious  to  the  health. 
The  feet  should  be  placed  firmly  upon  the  floor,  and  in  the 
same  direction  with  the  slope  of  the  writing.  The  weight  of 
the  body  should  be  supported  upon  the  feet  and  left  arm,  and 
the  right  one  should  rest  lightly  on  the  desk  at  least  half 
way  to  the  elbow,  and  be  kept  three  or  four  inches  from  the 
body.  This  position  gives  the  writer  the  perfect  command  of 
his  right  arm.  Some  teachers  permit  the  learner  to  incline 
the  right  side  to  the  desk,  and  lean  upon  the  right  arm.  This 
position  should  never  be  allowed.  The  book  should  be  placed 
in  front  of  the  right  arm,  and  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the 
desk.  It  should  be  kept  so  far  from  the  lower  edge  of  the 
desk,  that  the  arm  will  always  remain  on  it  half  way  to  the 
elbow  while  writing. 


WRITING.  121 

Pen-holding. 
The  next  thing  that  requires  attention,  is  the  method  of  hold- 
ing the  pen.  It  should  be  held  loosely  between  the  thumb  and 
the  first  and  second  fingers,  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  from 
the  point.  The  thumb  should  be  placed  on  the  pen  nearly  op- 
posite the  lower  joint  on  the  forefinger.  The  upper  end  of 
the  pen-holder  should  be  placed  a  little  forward  of  the  upper 
joint  on  the  forefinger,  and,  when  properly  held,  point  to 
the  right  shoulder.  The  little  finger  and  the  one  next  it  should 
bend  under  about  an  inch,  or  sufficiently  far  to  permit  the  hand 
to  be  supported  on  the  end  of  the  nails  of  these  two  fingers.* 

Method  of  giving  Instruction. 

A  teacher  may  give  instruction  to  a  large  number  at  the 
same  time,  by  placing  himself  in  such  a  position  that  he  may 
be  seen  by  eveiy  member  of  the  class.  He  should  then  hold 
the  pen  as  above  directed,  requiring  them  to  imitate  him.  This 
exercise  should  be  continued  until  every  individual  can  hold 
the  pen  correctly.  There  are  three  movements  in  writing  :— 
First,  the  movement  of  the  arm ;  second,  that  of  the  fore-arm ; 
and  third,  that  of  the  fingers  and  their  combinations.  These 
movements  should  be  learned  while  passing  through  the  ex- 
ercises upon  the  Muscular  Disciplinarian,  which  is  next  in 
order.  This  is  a  card  with  the  various  movements  engraved 
upon  it,  over  which  the  learner  should  pass  his  pen-holder 
firmly.  This  exercise  will  establish  a  correct  method  of  hold- 
ing and  using  the  pen.  It  will  also  strengthen  the  muscles 
of  the  hand  and  arm,  and  enable  the  learner  to  use  the  pen 
with  the  utmost  freedom.  The  use  of  the  Disciplinarian  will 
supersede  the  necessity  of  very  large  writing  for  beginners. 
As  it  is  used  for  an  exercise  in  pen-holding,  and  learning  the 
various  movements,  the  mind  is  confined  to  the  exercise  until 
the  pen  is  held  correctly,  and  the  various  movements  become 
somewhat  familiar  before  it  is  called  to  the  formation  of  letters 
and  words.  It  partially  serves  the  purpose  of  instructing  the 
mind  in  the  formation  of  letters,  while  the  hand  is  receiving  the 
proper  discipline,  in  connection  with  the  exercise  upon  the  chart, 
which  will  be  alluded  to  in  the  proper  place.  The  exercise 
upon  the  Disciplinarian  should  become  a  daily  practice,  a  few 
minutes  previous  to  every  writing  lesson,  until  the  learner  has 
acquired  a  perfect  command  of  the  hand,  and  can  write  with 
the  greatest  facility. 

*Sco  pnccc  131. 
U 


122 


12; 


o 

CO 

I— I 

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o 


§ 
B 


a  S3  g  -g^-S 

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3  2^  S 


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ID    O 

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C3    S    >-    1'         tJ 


y  c*  f  «  §  '53  S 
1^ 


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get;     -3  »^  3 

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~  S  ^  J-  S  c  «- 
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p,  S    O    en  ■"    ^    l< 

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^  en    _,    .      u^'C  ^ 

^  S  g-«  .|  « -3 
cS  cj  *=  I,  -^  itv. 


123 


124  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

At  times,  the  whole  school  may  receive  instruction  in  the 
method  of  sitting,  pen-holding,  use  of  Disciplinarian,  and  form 
of  letters ;  but,  in  order  to  teach  a  class  successfully,  tho^e  of 
nearly  the  same  attainments  should  form  the  class.  Scholara 
should  be  classed  as  cai*efully  in  writing  as  in  any  other 
branch  of  education.  It  wiU  not  be  taught  with  entire  success 
until  this  be  done. 

After  the  class  have  been  properly  seated,  and  pi'ovided 
with  the  Disciplinarian,  they  should  pass  the  pen-holder  firmly 
across  the  horizontal  exercise  marked  a.  (See  specimen,  pages 
122,  123.)  This  is  a  lateral  movement  of  the  ai-m.  The  arm 
should  slide  lightly  across  this  exercise,  from  left  to  right ;  and 
the  hand  be  supported  upon  the  nails  of  the  little  finger,  and 
the  one  next  it. 

The  teacher  should  pass  over  each  exercise  firet  himself, 
holding  the  Disciplinarian  in  such  a  position  that  the  class 
may  see  it.  When  the  next  exercise  is  to  be  given,  the  teacher 
may  call  the  attention  of  the  class  to  him  by  striking  the 
bell,  or  by  such  other  means  as  he  may  choose.  He  will  then 
give  the  next  exercise,  marked  b.  This  is  a  horizontal  oval 
movement,  and  brings  the  muscles  of  the  arm  into  active  ex- 
ercise. The  class  continue  this  movement  until  c  is  given. 
This  is  an  oval  oblique  movement,  designed  to  bring  the  mus- 
cles of  the  fore-arm,  wrist,  and  fingers,  into  active  exercise. 
During  this  exercise,  the  arm  should  rest  lightly  on  the  desk 
near  the  elbow,  and  the  pen-holder  be  passed  briskly  over 
the  oval  in  the  same  manner  that  we  should  form  the  capital  0. 
d  is  similar  to  the  last,  only  larger,  and  is  used  in  the  same 
manner,  c  is  a  straight  line  in  the  middle  of  the  oval  marked 
d ;  the  holder  should  be  passed  briskly  over  it,  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom,  with  the  arm  stationary  upon  the  desk,  f  and  g 
are  movements  of  the  arm  and  fingers.  The  under  fingers 
should  slip  across  the  paper  as  a  movable  support ;  and  this 
movement  of  the  arm  forms  the  hair-line  which  connects  the 
parts  of  the  m  and  u,  while  the  fingers  form  the  upright  parts  of 
the  letter.  By  using  the  under  fingers  as  a  movable  support, 
and  sUding  them  along  while  writing,  the  fingers  which  hold 
the  pen  are  always  opposite  the  letter  we  are  forming ;  con- 
sequently, the  slopes  of  the  letters  -will  be  alike.  After  the 
exercise  has  been  continued  about  ten  minutes  upon  the  Dis- 
ciplinarian, it  may  be  laid  aside  until  the  next  lesson,  when 
the  writing  exercise  should  be  given. 


WBITINQ.  125 

The  Primary,  and  Nos.  1  and  2  of  the  series  of  books,  are 
designed  for  theoretical  instruction,  accompanying  which,  is  a 
Chart  for  every  school.  This  Chart  is  a  fac-simile  of  the 
different  pages  of  the  Primary  and  First  and  Second  Books; 
and  it  should  be  suspended  before  the  school  in  such  a  situation 
that  every  scholar  can  see  it.  After  the  preceding  exercise 
has  been  discontinued  for  that  lesson,  the  vpord  or  letter  that 
is  to  be  written  by  the  class  should  be  written  on  the  Chart 
by  the  teacher,  and  the  method  of  writing  it  be  clearly  ex- 
plained; after  which  the  copy  should  be  written.  The  class 
should  proceed  with  the  lesson  no  faster  than  it  is  written  upon 
the  Chart;  consequently,  the  whole  school  are  writing  the 
same  word  at  the  same  time.  The  class  may  be  called  to  the 
TiLxt  word  by  striking  the  bell,  or  by  any  other  means,  when 
the  attention  of  the  school  is  called  to  the  Chart;  at  which 
time  the  teacher  should  write  the  next  copy  on  it.  All  cor- 
rections should  be  made  on  the  Chart ;  and  it  would  be  well 
for  the  teacher  to  write  the  words  incorrectly,  and  require  the 
class  to  make  the  correction.  It  will  be  seen  that  two  objects 
are  gained,  while  the  scholars  are  passing  through  the  above 
exercises.  While  the  class  are  learning  to  form  the  letters 
and  words  upon  the  theoretical  books,  the  hand  is  receiving 
a  daily  exercise  upon  the  Disciplinarian,  that  will  fit  it  for  the 
lessons  in  practical  penmanship  in  the  third  and  fourth 
books.  By  referring  to  the  first  two  books,  which  are  to  be 
used  for  the  lessons  described  above,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
are  always  two  copies  alike.  The  first  has  dots  under  it,  to 
be  written  on,  that  will  give  the  learner  the  proper  slope,  and 
the  place  where  the  turns  should  be  made.  The  second  copy 
is  like  the  first;  but  there  are  no  dots  to  guide  the  learner,  and 
he  is  left  to  try  his  powers  of  imitation. 

The  copy  should  always  be  written  first  on  the  dots  half 
down  the  page,  in  columns ;  then  it  should  be  written  in  the 
same  manner  in  the  blank  space,  leaving  the  lower  half  of 
the  book  blank.  (See  specimen,  page  126.)  After  the  upper 
half  of  the  book  is  written,  the  class  should  turn  to  the  first 
page,  and  write  the  lower  half  in  the  same  manner,  and  with 
great  care.  The  exercise  upon  the  Disciphnarian  should 
never  be  omitted  at  the  commencement  of  each  lesson,  as  it  is 
believed  to  be  the  only  plan  that  will  successfully  prepare  the 
hand  for  business  writing,  while  the  mind  is  at  the  same  time 
receiving  the  requisite  instruction  in  the  formation  of  letters. 
11* 


126 


THE    BI.ACK-BOARD. 


''/a^/a 


I  ^^1  v/-!  ^Jy\  ^/y\  ^y'y\  .^TT? 


\  .y\      \  .V  \        1        1  , 

•    1          I 

\  .y  \       \  r/  \         1         1  , 

1  yy\       \    -  \         1         1  , 

'    1          I 

\  .y\       \  r/  \         1         1  , 

■*  '   1          1 

1  .:- 1      \  //  \        1        1  , 

'     1          t 

\  yy\       \  ,'/  \         1         1  , 

'     1          I 

\  .'/  \      \  ,'/  \         1        i  / 

,    1          1 

1.:- 1       1  ,'/  1         1         1  . 

'     1          I 

1  .-1         \   .V    \            1            1    , 

'/   1          1 

/       / 

vy7^.Y7^^y^^yy\^Jy\^Jy\^JA 

\  .y\       1,-/1         1         1  , 

'  '   \          1 

1        ,;^'       1                           \         r'/           \                                    1                    ■               1          ' 

1  ,:'i       1  r/  1         1         1  , 

' '   1          1 

\  .y\       1  ,'/  1         1         1  , 

'  '   1           i 

\  .y  \       \  .'/  \         1         1  , 

\  .y\       1  ,v  1          1          1  , 

"  '   \          1 

\  ..■  \       \  ,'/  \                   1   , 

'  '   1          1 

1  ..'  I       \  .'/   \          1          1  , 

-•    1          1 

1  ..-1        1  .'.'    V         \          \   . 

'/   i         J 

Half  a  ftage  of  Book  1,  as  an  illastration. 


WRITING.  127 

After  the  exercises  have  been  correctly  written  on  the  first 
and  second  books,  and  the  proper  method  of  holding  and*  using 
the  pen  has  been  acquired,  the  learner  is  prepared  for  prac- 
tical penmanship,  which  is  learned  by  practice  upon  the  third 
and  fourth  books.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  method  of  teaching 
proposed,  enables  the  teacher  to  instruct  a  large  number  in 
one  class,  with  a  certainty  of  success.  It  is  not  only  believed, 
but  positively  known,  that  all  the  requisites  of  a  good  penman 
may  be  attained  by  this  method  of  instruction,  in  a  short  time 
compared  with  the  method  of  teaching  pursued  in  most  schools. 
The  strength  which  the  exercise  upon  the  Disciplinarian  im- 
parts to  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  arm,  enables  one  to  exe- 
onte  with  great  ease  and  rapidity.  The  plan  will  produce 
]  <  ifcct  uniformity  in  all  the  schools  where  it  is  used,  and  a 
change  of  teachers  will  not  affect  the  style  of  writing  or  the 
method  of  instruction.  A  change  of  teachers,  heretofore,  has 
produced  a  change  in  the  method  of  instruction  and  style  of 
writing;  consequently,  the  improvement  from  one  year  to 
another  has  been  hardly  perceptible. 

Sentences  have  been  introduced  into.  Nos.  3  and  4  of  the 
series  of  books,  that  contain  several  lines  across  the  page,  in- 
stead of  a  single  one.  The  advantage  of  this  plan  is,  that  it 
enables  the  learner,  while  in  school,  to  write  a  handsome  let- 
ter, or  a  bill  in  a  business  style,  which  the  former  practice  of 
repeating  a  single  line  failed  to  do.  There  are  three  essential 
qualities  requisite  in  business  penmanship:  legibility,  elegance, 
and  expedition.  It  has  been  ascertained,  by  numerous  ex- 
periments, that  eveiy  quality  of  a  good  penman  may  be  ac- 
quired by  this  method  of  instruction  ;  that  it  accomplishes 
much  more  by  supplying  the  important  requisites  heretofore 
alluded  to ;  and  that  it  eiFects  what  the  prevalent  methods  of 
teaching  can  not  do.  The  plan  of  presenting  to  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  the  exact  method  of  making  the  letter  and  connect- 
ing the  words  through  the  medium  of  the  Chart,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  power  of  rapid  execution  is  being  acquired  by 
training  the  muscles  upon  the  Disciplinarian,  is  invaluable. 
This  practice  enables  the  learner  to  acquirer  habit  of  holding 
and  carrying  the  pen  across  the  paper  correctly  and  expedi- 
tiously, and  to  keep  the  hand  in  the  same  position  in  all  parts 
of  the  word  and  line.  By  this  process,  the  hand  is  kept  in 
an  upright  position,  and  the  under  fingers  are  used  as  a  mova- 
ble support,  and  a  habit  of  holding  and  carrying  the  pen 


128  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

across  the  paper  correctly  will  be  permanently  established. 
When  the  fingers  are  used,  they  should  not  execute  the  whole 
of  the  writing;  but  it  should  be  done  by  the  movements  of  the 
arm,  fore-arm,  hand,  and  fingers.  The  fingers  should  form  the 
upward  and  downward  strokes  of  the  letters,  while  the  hair- 
lines connecting  them  should  be  formed  by  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  arm  or  fore-arm.  The  wrist  should  never  touch 
the  desk  while  executing  business  writing,  and  the  under  fin- 
gers should  glide  along  from  one  letter  to  another.  It  has 
always  been  noticed,  that  every  expert  penman  uses  the  arm 
and  fore-arm  as  much  and  as  readily  as  he  does  the  fingers ; 
and  that  the  more  rapid  the  execution,  the  greater  is  the  use 
made  of  the  arm.  The  reason  of  this  is  obvious.  The  mus- 
cles of  the  arm,  being  much  stronger  than  those  of  the  fingers 
and  thumb,  are  not  so  soon  wearied,  and  the  movement  which 
is  the  least  fatiguing  is  readily  adopted  by  those  who  are  in 
constant  practice  of  the  art.  The  pen  should  never  be  lifted 
in  any  single  word  in  business  writing.  The  proper  position 
of  the  body,  hand,  and  pen,  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
should  receive  much  attention.  By  pursuing  the  course  indi- 
cated, the  practice  of  frequently  lifting  the  pen  will  be  avoided, 
and  strength  of  muscle  with  steadiness  of  hand  permanently 
acquired.  The  fault  of  turning  the  hand  to  the  right  is  avoided ; 
and  freedom,  uniformity,  and  rapidity,  are  obtained.  The  arm 
glides  over  the  paper  with  little  effort,  the  hand  is  not  soon 
wearied,  and  the  fingers  act  with  great  steadiness  and  precis- 
ion. The  idea  frequently  advanced,  that  writing  is  merely 
a  mechanical  exercise,  and  requires  no  efibrt  of  the  mind,  arises 
from  a  want  of  investigation.  Handsome  letters  can  never  be 
made  on  paper  until  they  are  formed  in  the  mind ;  hence  it 
will  be  seen,  that,  although  the  execution  of  writing  is  a  me- 
chanical exercise,  the  conception  and  design  is  a  mental  one. 
Teachers  should  pay  much  attention  to  the  early  cultivation 
of  taste  in  writing ;  and  it  can  commence  at  no  point  with 
greater  propriety  than  where  proportion,  regularity,  and 
neatness  are  presented  to  the  eye,  and  where  the  mind  is  at 
the  same  time  interested  in  the  production  of  beautiful  char- 
acters. The  examples  for  imitation  should  be  correctly  formed, 
and  free  from  every  stiff  appearance.  It  would  be  as  incon- 
sistent to  place  imperfect  copies  before  the  learner,  as  it  would 
be  to  give  the  student  in  grammar  ungrammatical  sentences 
from  which  to  form  his  style  of  composition. 


METHOD   OF  TEACHING  DRAWING. 


The  importance  of '  industry '  in  the  school-room  cannot  be 
too  strongly  recommended  to  every  teacher.  This  habit  insux'es 
success  in  the  formation  of  character,  and  should  therefore 
be  early  inculcated.  It  is  a  '  panacea '  for  the  evil  propensities 
of  the  mind,  as  it  puts  in  motion  the  physical  machinery  of 
man.  In  the  District  school,  the  youngest  scholars  are  usually 
required  to  sit  '  prim '  three  fourths  of  their  time,  with  body 
erect,  hands  clasped,  or  arms  folded,  and  too  often  upon  the 
'  fair  side  of  a  slab,'  with  no  support  for  their  backs  or  limbs. 
I  will  not  name  the  amount  of  time  occupied  by  the  teacher 
in  holding  these  little  creatures  mentally  and  physically  in 
'  durance,'  in  opposition  to  the  laws  of  nature  and  common 
sense.  This  practice  leads  to  sluggishness  of  thought,  and 
indolence  of  action,  unless  indeed  nature  stimulates  the  child 
to  '  break  jail '  and  parry  consequences,  by  his  ingenuity  to 
*  out-general'  his  keeper, or  hy  false  representations  to  deceive 
his  judge.  All  this  sacrifice  of  moral  principle,  of  time  and 
expense,  of  teacher  and  scholar,  may  be  avoided  by  putting 
these  scholars  '  into  business.'  I  know  of  no  employment  in 
the  school-room,  so  well  adapted  to  the  eye,  the  mind,  and  the 
hand,  as  that  of  Drawing  ;  and  for  this  purpose  the  slate, 
the  black-board,  and  suitable  patterns,  are  an  invaluable 
acquisition. 

Choice  of  figures  —  diagrams  or  objects  to  be  drawn  —  is 
a  desideratum.  Simplicity,  usefulness,  and  adaptation,  should 
be  the  aim  of  every  elementary  work.  To  di'aw  right  lines, 
then  to  form  them  into  angles,  squares,  pentagons,  hexagons, 
octagons,  &c. — and  to  draw  the  circle,  the  cone,  the  pyramid, 
with  specimens  of  nature  and  art,  are  labors,  not  only  delight- 
ful, but  instructive.  All  the  '  prim '  time  may  be  thus  em- 
ployed by  the  scholars,  forming  habits  of  industry,  improving 
their  powers  of  imitation,  and  storing  their  minds  with  the 
principles  of  natural  and  mathematical  science,  —  principles 
of  which,  for  want  of  this  mode  of  instruction,  it  is  to  be 


130 


THE    BLACK-BOAKD. 


y 


•to 


<%> 


J 


i 


CO 


55 


feared,  too  many  possess  only  a  superficial  knowledge.     By 
this  method  of  training,  much  is  gained  and  nothing  lost. 

A  remark  in  point  I  quote  from  a  distinguished  educational 
gentleman  in  the  city  of  New  York  :  — '  Drawing  is  extensively 
taught ;  and  the  children,  so  far  from  being  impeded  in  their 
regular  hooh  exercises,  have  improved  at  least  fifty  per  cent, 
faster  in  those  exercises  than  they  did  previously  ;  so  that  draw- 
ing upon  slates  and  black-boards,  instead  of  retarding,  greatly 


DRAWIKG.  131 

enhances,  the  progress  of  pupils  in  all  their  studies.'  The 
preceding  plan  is  recommended  to  teach  children  the  first 
lessons  in  Drawing  previous  to  their  using  a  Drawing  Book. 

The  cut  is  a  specimen  of  Josiah  Holbrook's  Child's  First 
J3ook  —  one  of  a  series  of  Drawing  Books  for  children  pub- 
lished by  J.  H.  Mather  &  Co.,  of  Hartford,  Connecticut. 

Tlie  first  exercises  are  very  plain,  and  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  black-board.  The  teacher  should  draw 
one  of  the  exercises  on  the  black-board,  and  then  permit  the 
children  to  copy  it  upon  their  slates  until  it  can  be  correctly 
drawn.  I  should  commence  with  the  parallel  lines,  and  pro- 
ceed no  faster  than  the  figures  can  be  correctly  drawn.  This 
exercise  will  require  but  little  time  of  the  teacher,  and  be 
of  great  benefit  ^o  the  children.  It  will  enable  him  to  keep 
them  pleasantly  employed,  and  greatly  assist  him  in  gov- 
erning his  school.  The  exercises  should  be  drawn  so  large 
upon  the  black-board,  that  they  may  be  seen  in  all  parts  of 
the  school-room. 

The  following  engraving  exhibits  the  method  of  holding 
the  pen.     It  will  also  furnish  an  example  for  drawing. 


"^ 


J 


METHOD   OF  TEACHING  READING. 


That  reading  has  not  hitherto  been  correctly  taught  in 
common  schools,  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  most  scholars 
read  very  badly,  —  without  appearing  to  understand  the 
meaning  of  any  thing  which  they  read.  This  is  owing  to  the 
want  of  correct  instruction,  —  to  the  formation  of  bad  habits, 
contracted  in  early  life,  and  to  the  want  of  adequate  rules, 
clearly  explained,  and  made  intelligible  to  the  minds  of  the 
young. 

The  most  ready  way  to  overcome  this  defect,  is  to  begin 
with  children  at  a  very  early  period,  and  to  make  them  read 
what  they  do  read  well,  —  to  make  them  understand  and  feel 
what  they  read.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  read  any 
piece  which  they  do  not  understand.  It  would  be  better,  far 
better,  to  driU  them  for  a  whole  week  on  one  piece,  than  to 
have  them  read  many  without  understanding  them.  For  it 
is  not  how  much,  but  how  well,  they  read,  which  should  be  the 
object  of  instruction.  Easy  and  familiar  lessons  only  should 
be  read,  till  they  can  read  them  well,  and  give  the  proper 
expression.  The  true  expression  is  the  object  aimed  at.  A3 
the  scholar  can  have  no  just  idea  of  the  nameless  and  ever- 
varying  shades  of  expression,  which  give  life  and  force  to 
good  reading,  so  it  will  often  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  and 
scholar  to  read  over  alternately  the  same  piece  or  paragraph, 
perhaps,  a  number  of  times,  till  the  scholar  fully  understands 
its  meaning  and  feels  its  force. 

But,  as  the  great  mass  of  teachers  have  never  studied  the 
art  of  reading  as  a  science,  and  know  nothing  of  the  principles 
on  which  it  is  founded,  how  can  they  be  expected  to  teach 
correctly?  It  would  be  just  as  reasonable  to  expect  thein 
to  teach  English  grammar  without  rules,  or  without  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  the  subject,  as  correct  reading.  Skill 
and  success,  in  both  cases,  depend  on  systematic  training, 
founded  upon  correct  rules.  Not  only  are  rules  essential 
for  the  guidance  and  assistance  of  teachers  and  scholars ; 
but  acute  penetration  and  judgment,  to  discover  the  nice 


«. 


BEADING. 


shades  of  meaning,  as  well  as  taste  and  feeling  to  embody  and 
express  it. 

For  a  complete  system  of  rules  for  correct  reading  and 
speaking,  see  Russell  and  Groldsbury's  series  of  reading 
books,  especially  the  *  American  School  Reader,'  and  '  the 
Introduction.' 


OBJECTS   OF   READING. 

The  objects  of  reading  are  twofold :  —  1.  To  gain  informa- 
tion ;  and,  2.  To  communicate  it  to  others. 

The  Jirst  object  may  be  attained  by  reading  silently  to 
one's  self,  with-it  using  the  organs  of  speech  at  all ;  and  the 
best  direction  that  can  be  given  to  the  silent  reader,  is  to  be 
careful  to  understand  what  he  reads.  K  there  be  any  thing 
which  he  does  not  fully  comprehend,  he  should  ask  some  per- 
son to  explain  it  to  him.  If  he  do  not  know  the  meaning  of 
the  words,  he  should  consult  a  dictionary. 

The  second  object  of  reading  can  be  attained  only  by  read- 
ing aloud  and  intelligibly.  The  object  here  is  to  make  others 
understand  what  is  read.  And  that  reading  is  probably  the 
best,  and  certainly  the  most  effective,  which  best  enables 
others,  without  a  book,  by  the  mere  hearing  of  the  ear,  to 
understand  what  is  read,  and  to  feel  its  force.  Still  it  is 
proper  to  remark,  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  audible  reading, 
the  grammatical  and  the  rhetorical. 

Grammatical  reading,  like  that  of  reading  to  one's  self, 
regards  the  sense  only  of  what  is  read.  It  merely  requires 
the  scholar  to  read  correctly,  according  to  the  rules  of  gram- 
mar, but  without  any  emotion  or  feeling.  AU  he  is  required 
to  do,  is  to  'call'  his  words  right,  and  to  read  just  as  he  would 
read  a  hill  of  sale,  an  invoice  of  goods,  a  deed  of  land,  or  any 
other  legal  instrument. 

Rhetorical  reading  has  a  higher  object,  and  calls  into  action 
higher  powers.  It  is  not  applicable  to  a  composition  destitute 
of  emotion,  for  it  supposes /ecZm^.  It  does  not  barely  express 
the  thoughts  of  an  author,  but  it  expresses  them  with  the 
force,  variety,  and  beauty,  which  feeling  demands. 

12 


134 


THE  BLACK-BOABD. 


ARTICULATIOK. 


No  person  can  become  a  good  reader  or  speaker,  without 
first  acquiring  a  clear  and  distinct  articulation.  This  is  a 
subject  of  primary  importance ;  and  it  should  be  strictly 
attended  to  in  all  our  schools.  A  clear  and  distinct  articula- 
tion is  always  listened  to  with  pleasure ;  but  a  mumbling, 
mouthy,  or  imperfect  utterance  is  always  disagreeable,  if  not 
disgusting. 

Rule.  —  Articulate  with  due  force,  slowness,  and  exact- 
ness ;  so  that  every  sound  of  the  voice  may  be  fully  and 
correctly  formed,  distinctly  heard,  and  perfectl^understood. 

Exercises  in  Articulation. 


AW,  ball,  fall. 
-4rm,  harm,  charm. 
An,  and,  as. 
Rare,  dare,  fare. 
Ett,  erst,  earn, 
j&nd,  ebb,  ell. 
In,  if,  is,. 
Eve,  eel,  heed. 
Or,  orb,  cord. 
On,  off,  odd. 
Up,  hut,  tub. 
Ooze,  moon,  pool. 
Look,  took,  boot. 
-41e,  pave,  lace, 
ice,  p^ne,  ft're. 
Old,  foal,  somI. 
Our,  out,  ounce. 
Oil,  hoy,  join. 
Use,  tune,  fume. 
LvM,  loll,  pull. 
Maim,  mime,  mnm. 
Nun,  nine,  noun. 


^ap,  ran,  rag. 
Tar,  tear,  slur. 
^mg,  hang,  rung. 
Babe,  babble,  bubble. 
JAd,  died,  daxed. 
G&gy  g'm^^^  g^rgle. 
VsXve,  revolve,  vivid. 
Zone,  zany,  zest. 
Azure,  seizure,  measure. 
Ye,  you,  yet. 
Woe,  way,  war. 
Then,  thine,  than. 
Thin,  iAick,  thaxik. 

Pipe,  pope,  peep. 
Tent,  taught,,  total. 
Cake,  clod:,  click. 
Fife,  fade,  fast. 
Cease,  cess,  assists. 
Se,  hail,  Aave. 
"Push,  hush,  rasA. 
Church,  chain,  choose. 


The  foregoing  exercises  may  be  introduced  upon  the  black- 
board, or  used  in  any  other  way  which  the  teacher  chooses. 
It  will  be  well  to  distinguish  carefully  between  simple  and 


BEADING.  135 

compound  elements,  and  also  between  suhtonic  and  attonic 
elements.  The  terms,  subtonic  and  attonic,  nearly  correspond 
with  semivowels  and  mutes. 


COMBINATION    OF   CONSONANTS. 

^?ame,  ^ame,  cfear,  glow,  phj,  sleeTp,  spleen ;  Jrave,  creep, 
drive,  free,  grow,  prnj,  spread,  tm&t,  strike,  sAroud ;  small, 
swow,  spar,  s^ay. 

Hold,  elf,  hulk,  helm,  acalp,  hills,  else,  fault,  twelve  ;  aim'd, 
hums,  end,  vans,  ink,  dance,  Sint ;  barJ,  herd,  farm,  turn,  verse, 
wars,  arf,  curve,  curVd,  hirk'd,  armd,  warm,'d,  &rst,  csLrv'd; 
chasm,  ris'n,  asp,  mus^,  hiss'rf,  stocfc,  suct,  rak'd,  wafi,  qua^'d, 
apt,  pip'd,  op'n,  ta^'n,  gard'n,  riv'n,  ligh^n  /  whi&<,  cam's^,  cans^, 
wouZrfs^,  hearrf's^,  arm'dst,  tum'dst;  ajble,  maple,  idle,  hurl,  dis- 
ahl'd,  hrid'ld,  rippl'd,  world. 


PBONTTNCIATION. 

That  pronunciation  is  correct  which  is  sanctioned  by  good 
usage,  or  custom.  Good  usage  may  be  regarded  as  a  law. 
When  it  varies,  as  it  does  in  some  cases,  we  are  at  liberty 
to  follow  our  own  choice.  But,  when  men  of  learning  and 
taste  agree,  they  establish  a  rule  which  is  of  binding  authority. 
As  a  standard  authority,  perhaps  we  have  none  better  than 
Mr.  Worcester's  late  '  Critical  Dictionary.' 

Common  Errors  in  Pronunciation. 

The  following  errors  should  be  carefully  studied  and  cor- 
rected. The  best  method,  perhaps,  of  correcting  an  error, 
when  it  has  once  become  a  habit,  is  to  require  pupils  to 
repeat,  in  quick  succession,  first  the  error,  and  then  the  cor- 
rection, till  they  are  made  sensible  of  the  error,  and  are  able 
to  correct  it. 

Alwuz,  for  always ;  oall,  for  all ;  Srm,  for  arm  ;  are,  for  are ; 
again,  agan,  agin,  for  again  (agen)  ;  rSnge,  for  range ;  angels, 
for  angelaf^nt,  for  aunt ;  bade,  for  bade ;  charms,  for  charms ; 
daunt,  for  daunt }  kerry,  for  carry ;  meddle,  for  medal  j  ruther, 


186  THE   BLACK-BOARD. 

for  rather ;  sheer,  for  share ;  wrop,  for  wi^p ;  warier  and 
woter,  for  water  ;  wawmer,  for  warmer ;  airliest.  for  earliest ; 
airth,  for  earth ;  idee,  for  idea ;  haunts,  for  haunts ;  pass,  for 
pass. 

Aig,  for  egg ;  laig,  for  leg ;  faish  and  feesh,  for  fish ;  ware, 
for  were ;  ben,  for  been  (bin)  ;  noar,  for  nor ;  lost,  for  lost ; 
onder,  for  under ;  aice,  for  ice ;  hSm,  for  home ;  sorce,  for 
source  ;  ile  and  oayl,  for  Oil. 

Git,  for  get ;  jine,  for  join ;  jinte,  for  joint ;  instid,  for  instead ; 
gether,  for  gather ;  gineral,  for  general ;  ginuine,  for  genuine  ; 
gloris  and  glorus,  for  glorious  ;  hed,  for  had ;  heerd,  for  heard ; 
hurth,  for  hearth ;  hostile,  for  hostUe ;  holler,  for  hollow ; 
histed,  for  hoisted. 

Favorites,  for  favorites ;  feater,  for  feature ;  futer,  for  future ; 
furful,  for  fearful ;  foUer,  for  follow ;  forgit,  for  forget ;  fortin, 
for  fortune  ;  feller,  for  fellow ;  feels,  for  fields  ;  furrere,  for  fur- 
rows ;  frinds,  for  friends ;  faller,  for  fallow ;  fopunce,  for  four- 
pence  ;  edercate,  for  educate ;  entud,  for  entered ;  exelunt,  for 
excellent ;  evry,  for  every. 

Cawn,  for  com ;  chist,  for  chest ;  covnunt,  for  covenant ; 
destrict,  for  district ;  disceit,  for  deceit ;  deciples,  for  disciples ; 
cunfined,  for  confined ;  cunnected,  for  connected  ;  cavuns,  for 
caverns ;  comfut,  for  comfort ;  creater,  for  creature ;  sullers, 
for  cellars. 

Gurus,  for  curious ;  crederlous,  for  credulous  ;  churful,  for 
cheerful ;  culter,  for  culture ;  centry,  for  century ;  ketch,  for 
catch ;  bile,  for  boil ;  beyend,  for  beyond  ;  buddy,  for  body ; 
beller,  for  bellow ;  bunnets,  for  bonnets ;  bruthren,  for  breth- 
ren; bawn,  for  born;  borrer,  for  borrow;  arrer, for  arrow; 
actooal,  for  actual ;  annooal,  for  annual ;  amebic,  for  amiable ; 
after,  for  after. 

Kittles,  for  kettles ;  lecter,  for  lecture ;  mixter,  for  mixture ; 
medders,  for  meadows ;  momunt,  for  moment ;  monemunt,  for 
monument ;  meller,  for  mellow ;  nater,  for  nature ;  natteral  and  ' 
natooral,  for  natural ;  native,  for  native ;  narrer,  for  narrow. 

Othuz,  for  others ;  onwud,  for  onward ;  pint,  for  point ; 
picter,  for  picture  ;  pison,  for  poison  ;  perpettual  and  perpetooal, 
for  perpetual ;  pered,  for  period ;  poperlar,  for  popular ;  posters, 
for  postures ;  paster,  for  pasture ;  pumitted,  for  permitted ; 
piller,  for  pillow ;  rupter,  for  rupture  ;  rapter,  for  rapture. 

Spere,  for  sphere  ;  sut,  for  soot ;  shelter,  for  shutftfer ;  swaller, 
for  swallow ;  skerce,  for  scarce  j  stawms,  for  storms ;  sorrers, 


\ 


BEADING.  137 

for  sorrows ;  shaller,  for  shallow ;  stiddy,  for  steady ;  spile, 
for  spoil ;  sarch,  for  search ;  salitary,  for  salutary ;  shet,  for 
shut ;  sperit,  for  spirit ;  sitooated,  for  situated ;  sech,  for  such  ; 
shawtly,  for  shortly  ;  supprise,  for  surprise ;  sussiety,  for  so- 
ciety; slippry,  for  slippery;  sheppud,  for  shepherd;  shad- 
ders,  for  shadows. 

Tribit,  for  tribute;  talunts,  for  talents;  tremenduous,  for 
tremendous  ;  toomultoous,  for  tumultuous  ;  turberlunt,  for  tur- 
bulent ;  travler,  for  traveller ;  torter,  for  torture. 

Valuble,  for  valuable ;  voilent,  for  violent ;  verder,  for  ver- 
dure ;  varus,  for  various ;  venter,  for  venture ;  victry,  for  vic- 
tory ;  virtoos,  for  virtues  ;  vess'l,  for  vessel. 

Wuth,  for  worth  ;  winder,  for  window  ;  widder,  for  widow  ; 
wawble,  for  warble;  wilely,  for  wildly;  yaller,  for  yellow; 
taken,  for  tak'n ;  broken,  for  brok'n ;  spoken,  for  spok'n ; 
open,  for  op'n. 

Acs,  for  acts  ;  accoss,  for  accosts  ;  bustin,  for  bursting ;  ble- 
vin,  for  believing ;  bouns,  for  bounds  ;  bease,  for  beasts  ;  close, 
for  clothes ;  clus,  for  close ;  comprehens,  for  comprehends ; 
direcly,  for  directly;  dritfs,  for  drifts;  consiss,  for  consists; 
cosly,  for  costly ;  contrass,  for  contrasts. 

Exiss,  for  exists ;  elemense,  for  elements ;  exussise,  for 
exercise  ;  foi'ess,  for  forests ;  fust,  for  first ;  foUorn,  for  forlorn  ; 
feass,  for  feasts ;  forrard,  for  forward ;  groun,  for  ground ; 
guess,  for  guests  ;  gose,  for  ghosts ;  bosses,  for  horses  ;  hans, 
for  hands  ;  husban,  for  husband. 

Jest  and  just,  for  just ;  kep,  for  kept ;  lugsury,  for  luxury ; 
lisless,  for  listless ;  leif,  for  left ;  liffs,  for  lifts ;  mothuz,  for 
mothers ;  munz,  for  months  ;  mose,  for  most ;  miss,  for  mists  ; 
perfecly,  for  perfectly ;  presenly,  for  presently ;  preese,  for 
priests ;  pose,  for  posts ;  pouns,  for  pounds ;  prospecks,  for 
prospects  ;  respecks,  for  respects. 

Sawr,  for  saw  ;  stockins,  for  stockings ;  soffly,  for  softly ; 
sixc,  for  sixth  ;  tempess,  for  tempests  ;  thousn,  for  thousand ; 
tracks,  for  tracts ;  thusty,  for  thirsty ;  wishin,  for  wishing ; 
wins,  for  winds. 

The  preceding  are  but  specimens  of  the  numerous  errors 
which  daily  occur  in  common  school  reading.  To  avoid  these 
and  similar  errors,  the  elementary  sounds,  simple  and  com- 
pound, and  their  combinations  in  syllables  and  words,  should 
be  frequently  and  carefully  repeated.  Let  the  teacher  make 
12* 


138  THE    BLACK-BOARD. 

such  a  use  of  the  foregoing  examples  as,  in  his  judgment,  will 
secure  a  correct  pronunciation  of  woi'ds.  It  would  be  well,  also, 
to  require  scholars  to  read  a  few  lines  of  every  lesson  back- 
wards, so  as  to  prevent  rapidity  of  utterance,  and  to  secure 
attention  to  exactness  in  the  formation  of  sounds. 


EXEECISES    ON   FORCE. 

Half  whisper. 

*  Step  softly !  —  All 's  hushed  as  midnight,  yet' 

Subdued  force. 

*  Pale  mourned  the  lily,  when  the  rose  had  died.' 

Gentle  force. 
'  Give  me  a  calm,  a  thankful  heart, 
From  every  murmur  free ! ' 

Moderate  force. 
'  The  acquiring  of  knowledge  is  one  of  the  highest  privi- 
leges, as  well  as  one  of  the  most  important  duties,  of  the  young.' 

Bold  force. 
'  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my 
hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote.  —  Independence  now,  and 
independence  for  ever ! ' 

Shouting. 
'  Liberty  I   Freedom !  —  Tyranny  is  dead !  * 


EXERCISES    ON   PITCH. 

Lowest  pitch. 
'  Silence  how  dead !  and  darkness  how  profound ! ' 

Low  pitch. 
*  How  dead  the  vegetable  kingdom  lies ! 
Hqf  dumb  the  tuneful ! ' 


READING.  139 

Middle  pitch. 
'  A  tranquil  mind,  like  the  smooth  lake,  reflects  all  things 
in  their  true  forms.' 

High  pitch. 

*  Up !  let  us  to  the  fields  away, 
And  breathe  the  fresh  and  balmy  air ! ' 

Veri/  high  pitch. 
*  Joy,  joy  for  ever !  —  my  task  is  done ; 
The  gates  are  passed,  and  heaven  is  won ! ' 


BXEECI8ES    ON   MOVEMENT. 

Slowest  movement. 
'  Creation  sleeps.  —  'T  is  as  the  general  pulse 
Of  life  stood  stUl,  and  nature  made  a  pause,  — 
An  awful  pause,  —  prophetic  of  her  end ! ' 

Slow  movement. 
'  How  sweet  and  solemn  is  this  midnight  scene ! ' 

Moderate  movement. 
*  Nothing  affords  so  sure  a  support  to  the  mind,  as  a  firm 
reliance  on  the  goodness  of  God.' 

Lively  m^ovement. 
'Is  this  a  time  to  be  gloomy  and  sad, 
When  our  mother  Nature  laughs  around  ?  * 

Rapid  movement. 
*  Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Mirth  and  youthful  jollity, 
Quips  and  cranks  and  wanton  wiles. 
Nods  and  becks  and  wreathed  smiles ! ' 


140  THE  BLACK-BOAKD. 


EMPHASIS. 


Emptasis  is  a  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice  laid  on  some 
word  or  words  in  a  sentence,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
others,  or  to  enforce  their  meaning.  Every  sentence  has,  at 
least,  one  emphatic  word  ;  some  sentences  have  more.  If,  in 
any  instance,  we  lay  the  emphasis  on  a  wrong  word,  or  on  a 
different  word,  we  alter  the  meaning  entirely.  This  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  example :  — 

'  Shall  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? ' 

If  we  lay  the  emphasis  on  shall,  as  'Shall  you  ride  to  town  to- 
day ? '  the  answer  may  be  '  Yes,'  or  'iV^o  ; '  —  if  on  i/ou,  as 
'  Shall  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? '  the  answer  may  be,  '^o,  but 
my  friend  will;'  —  if  on  ride,  as  '  Shall  you  nde  to  town  to- 
day?' the  answer  maybe,  'I^o,  but  I  shall  go  on  foot ;'  — 
if  on  town,  as  '  Shall  you  ride  to  toton  to-day  ? '  the  answer 
may  be,  'No,  but  I  shall  go  into  the  country  ; '  —  if  on  day,  as 
'  Shall  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ? '  the  answer  may  be,  'iVb,  but 
I  shall  to-morrow.* 

Similar  remarks  may  be  applied  to  the  following  line  of 
Shakspeare : — 

*  But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious ;' 

which  occurs  several  times  in  Antony's  oration  over  the  dead 
body  of  Caesar,  In  every  instance  in  which  the  line  occurs, 
the  emphasis  should  be  varied  according  to  the  sense. 

Let  every  reader,  then,  be  careful  to  give  the  right  em- 
phasis. He  should  endeavour,  not  only  to  emphasize  the 
right  words,  but  to  give  each  word  its  due  amount  of  em- 
phasis. Too  much  or  too  little  will  injure  the  sense  as  effect- 
ually, as  laying  it  on  a  wrong  word,  or  as  using  no  emphasis 
at  all. 

JVbte.  —  Appropriate  pauses,  correct  inflections,  just  stress, 
an'd  natural  and  expressive  tones,  are  each  essential  to  good 
reading.  These  can  be  acquired  only  by  study  and  practice. 
But  we  have  not  room  to  treat  of  them  here.  For  a  knowledge 
of  these  topics,  see  'The  American  Common-School  Reader 
and  Speaker,'  by  Russell  and  Goldsbury ;  in  which  work  will 
be  found  all  the  rules  for  correct  reading  and  speaking. 


METHOD  OF  TEACHING  COMPOSITION. 


Let  all  the  pupils  of  suitable  age  and  attainments  be 
formed  into  a  class,  for  the  purpose  of  writing  composition  on 
the  black-board,  or  on  their  slates.  Let  as  many  as  can  be 
conveniently  accommodated  at  the  black-board,  have  a-portion 
of  the  board  divided  oflP,  by  a  chalk  line,  by  itself;  and  let  the 
remainder  write  on  their  slates. 

Let  the  pupils  now  be  informed,  that  the  art  of  composition 
consists  in  thinking  accurately  upon  a  given  subject,  and 
writing  down  one's  thoughts.  To  illustrate  the  truth  of  this 
remark,  let  the  teacher  select  some  subject,  or  request  one 
of  the  pupils  to  select  one,  on  which  to  write.  As  soon  as 
the  subject  is  selected,  the  exercise  begins. 

The  teacher  then  directs  his  pupils  to  write  down  the  sub- 
ject on  the  black-board,  or  on  their  slates.  He  then  dictates 
what  is  to  be  written  ;  and  they  write  down  whatever  he  dic- 
tates. He  proceeds  slowly,  giving  out  one  sentence  at  a  time, 
and  repeating  it,  so  as  to  give  all  an  opportunity  and  sufficient 
time  to  write  it  down.  _  He  then  gives  out  another  sentence, 
and  repeats  it,  then  another,  and  so  on,  tiU  the  writing  is 
completed.  Thus  far  his  pupils  have  been  left  free  to  exer- 
cise their  own  judgment  with  regard  to  the  execution  —  the 
spelling  of  the  words,  the  use  of  capital  letters,  the  punctua- 
tion, &C.  Public  criticisms  are  then  made  on  each  perform- 
ance ;  all  the  errors  are  pointed  out,  and  the  rules  of  grammar 
applied.  In  this  way,  pupils  will  soon  learn  to  execute  correctly 
whatever  the  teacher  dictates.  And  this  is  by  no  means  a 
small  attainment.  There  are  comparatively  few  who  com- 
plete their  education  at  our  common  schools,  able  to  write 
even  a  common  letter  correctly,  and  give  it  form,  proportion, 
and  beauty. 

Let  the  next  exercise  on  the  black-board  be  a  letter  ad- 
dressed to  a  friend  of  either  sex,  and  the  sulject  be  '  Our 
school  and  studies.* 

The  teacher  then  directs  his  pupils  to  date  the  letter,  and 
explains  to  them  what  he  means  by  it ;  that  he  wishes  them 
to  write  down,  in  a  proper  manner,  on  the  black-board,  the 
name  of  the  place,  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the 
year.    As  soon  as  they  have  done  this,  he  criticises  each  per- 


142  THE   BLACK-BOABD. 

formance.  He  then  directs  them  to  rub  it  out,  and  write  it 
anew,  in  its  proper  place.  As  soon  as  the  date  is  completed, 
he  directs  them  to  write  the  address  in  its  proper  place.  This 
may  be  somewhat  variously  written,  and  each  mode  be  right. 
Still  there  is  a  right  and  a  wrong  way,  as  weU  as  a  right  and 
a  wrong  place,  of  writing  the  address.  Having  examined 
each  performance,  and  determined  whatWiQ  address  should 
be,  and  where  it  should  be  written,  he  proceeds  to  dictate 
what  they"  are  to  vrrite  down.  He  gives  out  one  sentence  at 
a  time,  and  repeats  it,  then  another,  and  repeats  it,  and 
so  on,  till  the  writing  is  completed.  The  pupils,  as  in  the 
former  example,  have  been  left  free  to  exercise  their  own 
judgment  with  regard  to  the  execution  —  the  spelling  of  the 
words,  the  tise  of  capital  letters,  the  punctuatioti,  &c.  Public 
criticisms  are  then  made  on  each  performance ;  aU  the  errors 
are  pointed  out,  and  the  rules  of  grammar  applied. 

Let  the  next  exercise  on  the  black-board  be  a  farmer's 
bill,  —  the  next,  a  merchant's  hiU,  —  the  next,  a  polite  billet  of 
invitation  to  a  party.  Perhaps,  there  is  no  class  of  composi- 
tions so  generally  incorrect  as  these.  In  each  of  these  exer- 
cises, the  pupils  should  be  required  to  design  and  compose 
them  for  themselves.  This  wiU  teach  them  to  think,  as  well 
as  to  execute.  The  teacher  should  then  criticise  each  per- 
formance, point  out  all  the  errors,  and  apply  the  rules  of 
grammar. 

Let  the  same  course  of  instruction  be  pursued,  tUl  pupils 
become  qualified  to  write  upon  easy  and  familiar  subjects, 
without  the  supervision  of  the  teacher.  Let  them  then  have 
a  subject  given  them  to  write  upon  ;  and,  at  a  given  time,  let 
them  hand  in  their  compositions. 

Every  experienced  teacher  must  have  noticed  what  a  variety 
of  mistakes  are  usually  made  by  pupils  in  their  first  attempts 
at  this  exercise.  There  will  be  errors  in  orthography,  ety- 
mology, syntax,  and  prosody.  The  same  pupil  who,  in  a  class 
of  spellers,  would  spell  every  word  right,  will,  in  writing  com- 
position, spell  many  of  them  wrong.  Besides,  capital  letters 
will  be  out  of  place,  the  punctuation  improperly  used,  sen- 
tences wrongly  constructed,  and  the  Queen's  English,  if  not 
absolutely  murdered,  will  be  very  much  maimed  and  dismem- 
bered. To  obviate  all  these  difficulties,  correct  all  these  errors, 
and  save  much  of  the  teacher's  time,  the  black-board  may  be 
used  to  great  advantage. 


< 


GLOSSARY. 


Explanation  of  a  few  foreign  words,  not  included  among 
the  prefixes,  but  which  are  extensively  used  in  the  formation 
of  English  words. 


Adeno  •  •  •  signifies  •  •  •  gland. 

Aero,   air. 

Anemo, ' wind. 

Angio, vessel. 

Antho, flower. 

Anthropo, man. 

Arche, beginning. 

Areto, virtue. 

Armi, arms. 

Astheno, sick. 

Astro, star. 

Auto, self. 

Baro, weight. 

Belli, war. 

Bene, well. 

Bi,  bis,  bin, two. 

Biblio, book. 

Bio, life. 

Botano,  •  •    plant. 

Brachy, short. 

Caco, bad. 

Calli, beauty. 

Carni, flesh. 

Chalco, brass. 

Chiro, hand. 

Chromato, color. 

Chrono, time. 

Centu,  centi,  cent,  •  •  •  hundred. 

Choro, place. 

Concho, shell. 

Cosmo, world. 

Cranio, skull. 

Crypto, •  secret. 


Dactylo  •  •  signifies  •  •  finger. 

Deca, ten. 

Deraono, demon. 

Dendro, tree. 

Doxo, opinion. 

Duo,  du, two. 

Entero, bowels. 

Entomo, insect. 

Equi, equal. 

Etio, cause. 

Ethno, people. 

Etho, ethic. 

Etymo,  •  •  • root. 

Eucho, prayer. 

Eu, well. 

Fratri, brother. 

Genia, race. 

Genethlia, natal. 

Geo, earth. 

Glosso, •  •  •  •  tongue. 

Glypho, engraving. 

Glypto, gem. 

Gnomo, maxim. 

Hagio, holy. 

Helio, sun. 

Hepta, seven. 

Hexa,  hex, six. 

Helmintho, worm. 

Hetero, another. 

Hiero, sacred. 

Homo, similar. 

Horo, hour. 

Horti, garden. 


144 


THE  BLACK-BOAR0. 


Ichno  •  •  'Signifies-  •  'footstep. 

Icono, image. 

Ichthyo, fish- 
Infra,  below. 

Juris, legal. 

Lexico,    dictionary. 

liitho, stone. 

Loco, place. 

Logo, word. 

Macro, long. 

Manto, robe. 

Manu, hand. 

Matri, mother. 

Meno, month. 

Micro, small. 

Mille,  •  •  • thousand. 

Mime, mimic. 

Mono, one. 

Myco, fungus. 

Myo, muscle. 

Mytho, fable. 

Multi, many. 

Necro, dead. 

Neo, new. 

Neuro, nerve. 

Noct, night. 

Non,  ne, not. 

Noso, disease. 

Nulli, none,  no. 

Octa,  octo,  oct, eight. 

Omni, all. 

Onto, being. 

Omitho, fowl. 

Ortho, right. 

Osteo,  ossi, bone. 

Ourano, heaven. 

Pan,  panto, all. 

Pantheo, all  the  gods. 

Paradox,-  •  •  -against  opinion. 

Patho, suffering. 

Patri,  parri, father. 

Penta, five. 


Petro  •  •  •  •  signifies  •  •  •  •  stone. 

Pharmaco, medicine. 

Philo,  phil, love. 

Phraseo, phrase. 

Phreno, mind. 

Phono, sound. 

Photo, light. 

Physico,  physio, natural. 

Phyto, plant. 

Pleni, fiiU. 

Pneumato, fluid. 

Poly, many. 

Proto, first. 

Pseudo, false. 

Psycho, soul. 

Pyro, fire. 

Quad, four. 

Recti, right. 

Regi, king. 

Satis, enough. 

Sceno, scene. 

Seleno, moon. 

Septem,  sept, seven. 

Sex, six. 

Sine, without. 

Somato, body. 

Soh, one. 

Stegano, secret. 

Steno, short. 

Stereo, • solid. 

Tauto, same. 

Techno, art. 

Tele, end. 

Tetra, four. 

Theo, God. 

Topo, place. 

Tri,  tres, three. 

Typo, letter. 

Uni, one. 

Veri, true. 

Xylo, •  • wood. 

Zoo, i  • animal. 

I 


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NORTH  AMERICAN  SPELLING  BOOK: 

Conformed  to  Worcester's  Dictionary.     By  the  Autlior  of  the 
*  Sequel  to  Easy  Lessons.'    Revised  and  Enlarged  Edition. 

From  Ho7i.  J.  Farher,  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  New  Hampshire. 

I  have  examined  the  North  American  SpelUng  Book,  by  Rev.  L.  W. 

Leonard,  and  commend  it  to  the  favorahle  notice  of  parents  and  instructors. 

The  an-angement  of  the  lessons  will,  in  my  opinion,  make  the  progi-ess  of 

the  pupil  much  more  easy,  and  must  render  the  work  a  valuable  acquisition. 

This  little  work  is  somewhat  beyond  the  range  of  our  accustomed  studies. 
Bui  we  cannot  deny  ourselves  the  satisfaction  of  saying,  tliat  as  far  as  we 
are  able  to  foi-m  an  idea  of  what  a  spelling  book  should  be,  tliis  is  precisely 
that  thing.  —  North  American  Bevieic,  Jan.  1837. 

We  consider  it  better  adapted  to  small  children  than  any  spelling  book 
which  has  ever  fallen  into  our  hands ;  and  our  experience  in  these  books 
has  been  considerable.  Its  author  and  publisher  desei-ve  well  of  commu- 
nity for  its  existence ;  for  the  spelling  book  is  the  '  king  bee '  in  all  our  com- 
mon schools,  and  he  who  excels  in  furnishing  the  best,  does  a  great  good  to 
millions.  —  Courier  and  Eiiquira: 


SEQUEL  TO  EASY  LESSONS: 

A  Selection  of  Reading  Lessons,  for  Common  Schools;  de- 
signed to  be  used  after  Easy  Lessons,  American  Populaif 
Lessons,  Boston  Reading  Lessons,  &c.  By  Rev.  Levi  W. 
Leonard,  Author  of  the  Literary  and  Scientific  Class  Book. 

[t^  The  first  edition  of  four  thousand  copies  was  all  sold  in  seven 
montlis.  The  selections  are  such  as  will  highly  interest  the  scholar,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  not  found  in  other  school  bdoks. 

From  Rev.  Z.  S.  Barstoiv,  of  Keene. 
It  is  such  a  book  as  was  much  needed,  being  adapted  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  young,  and  suited  to  convey,  in  an  easy  and  interesting  manner, 
interesting  information,  and  to  promote  the  love  of  literature. 

From  Rev.  A.  A.  Livermore,  of  Keene. 
The  work  is  fitted  to  interest  the  feelings  and  refine  the  taste  and  morals 
of  the  young.  It  is  a  little  pot  of  honey,  for  their  mental  appetite.  The 
selections  arc  made  from  the  best  writers  for  juvenile  readers,  on  both  sides 
of  the  water,  and  are  abridged  and  arranged  by  one  whose  sound  judgment 
in  relation  to  schools  and  school  books  is  unimpeachable. 


